{"id":1062,"date":"2008-02-18T20:40:42","date_gmt":"2008-02-19T01:40:42","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/s265039441.onlinehome.us\/philpaine\/?p=1062"},"modified":"2018-08-15T00:00:53","modified_gmt":"2018-08-15T04:00:53","slug":"monday-february-18-more-about-fish-%e2%80%95-more-than-you-probably-want-to-know","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/?p=1062","title":{"rendered":"Monday, February 18, 2008 \u2014 More About Fish \u2015 More Than You Probably Want to Know"},"content":{"rendered":"

\"puffer_fish_1\"<\/a>For the last fif\u00adteen years, I\u2019ve been com\u00adplain\u00ading to every\u00adone I know about the pecu\u00adliar absence of fish from his\u00adtor\u00adi\u00adcal writ\u00ading and analy\u00adsis. Go into any uni\u00adver\u00adsi\u00adty library, and you will find the stacks filled with mas\u00adsive col\u00adlec\u00adtions of books and jour\u00adnals about every con\u00adceiv\u00adable aspect of farm\u00ading, ani\u00admal hus\u00adbandry, and nomadism. Urban stud\u00adies from every region and era have been under\u00adtak\u00aden. Con\u00adtro\u00adver\u00adsies and debates about the pre\u00adcise rela\u00adtion\u00adships between all these activ\u00adi\u00adties flash like sum\u00admer light\u00adning storms. But where is fish\u00ading? Try to even find his\u00adtor\u00adi\u00adcal stud\u00adies of fish\u00ading and fish\u00ading com\u00admu\u00adni\u00adties in a uni\u00adver\u00adsi\u00adty library. One imme\u00addi\u00adate\u00adly plum\u00admets from banks of shelv\u00ading units to a tiny clus\u00adter on a sin\u00adgle dusty shelf. Very lit\u00adtle of this is his\u00adtor\u00adi\u00adcal in outlook. <\/span><\/p>\n

Most of what you can find is con\u00adtem\u00adpo\u00adrary eco\u00adnom\u00adic stud\u00adies of fish\u00ading as an indus\u00adtry, with\u00adout much his\u00adtor\u00adi\u00adcal or cul\u00adtur\u00adal inquiry. A small num\u00adber of anthro\u00adpo\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal stud\u00adies of fish\u00ading vil\u00adlages exist, but in the bulk of them, the anthro\u00adpol\u00ado\u00adgist is not much inter\u00adest\u00aded in them as fish\u00ading vil\u00adlages per se<\/em>, but only in the stan\u00addard anthro\u00adpo\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal issues of kin\u00adship, accul\u00adtur\u00ada\u00adtion to larg\u00ader soci\u00adeties, reli\u00adgion, and so on, which have been laid out before hand in the study of agri\u00adcul\u00adtur\u00adal villages.<\/span><\/p>\n

There\u2019s a mod\u00adest body of work about the Medieval and Renais\u00adsance her\u00adring trade in Europe, but it exists in an iso\u00adlat\u00aded com\u00adpart\u00adment, sel\u00addom exam\u00adined in rela\u00adtion to either polit\u00adi\u00adcal or social his\u00adto\u00adry. His\u00adto\u00adri\u00adans of the \u201cAge of Explo\u00adration\u201d some\u00adtimes dis\u00adcuss the fish\u00aderies of the Atlantic, but only in rela\u00adtion to ques\u00adtions such as whether Colum\u00adbus heard rumours of west\u00adern lands from fish\u00ader\u00admen, and so on. They do not exhib\u00adit much inter\u00adest in the fish\u00ader\u00admen them\u00adselves. Every nation with sig\u00adnif\u00adi\u00adcant fish\u00ading grounds has, of course, some spe\u00adcial\u00adists who study the eco\u00adnom\u00adic and social his\u00adto\u00adry of their par\u00adtic\u00adu\u00adlar fish\u00aderies, but they do not seem too inter\u00adest\u00aded in push\u00ading their stud\u00adies far back in time, or in see\u00ading them in the con\u00adtext of glob\u00adal his\u00adto\u00adry. The clos\u00adest I would ven\u00adture to call a his\u00adtor\u00adi\u00adcal inter\u00adest in depth is among Cana\u00addi\u00adan his\u00adto\u00adri\u00adans spe\u00adcial\u00adiz\u00ading in our Atlantic provinces. Out\u00adside of Cana\u00adda, this has attract\u00aded lit\u00adtle atten\u00adtion. Even with\u00adin Cana\u00adda, inter\u00adest rapid\u00adly fades when the his\u00adto\u00adri\u00adans are land\u00adlub\u00adbers from Que\u00adbec, Ontario, or far\u00adther west. Even the fact that the Great Lakes, as recent\u00adly as the 1940\u2019s, sup\u00adport\u00aded a huge and prof\u00aditable fish\u00adery \u2015 destroyed by the legal process of erod\u00ading ripar\u00adi\u00adan law, and hand\u00ading over the Great Lakes to heavy indus\u00adtry to pol\u00adlute and destroy as they pleased \u2015 has been for\u00adgot\u00adten by the com\u00admu\u00adni\u00adty of Cana\u00addi\u00adan his\u00adto\u00adri\u00adans. Japan and Nor\u00adway prob\u00ada\u00adbly have sim\u00adi\u00adlar, local\u00adly ori\u00adent\u00aded his\u00adto\u00adri\u00adogra\u00adphies, though I have not run across them in my libraries.<\/span><\/p>\n

I\u2019m in the mid\u00addle of a lot of read\u00ading about pre\u00adhis\u00adto\u00adry, state for\u00adma\u00adtion, and ancient economies. I find the absence of fish rather pecu\u00adliar and frus\u00adtrat\u00ading, because I think that fish and fish\u00ader\u00admen are quite impor\u00adtant in human his\u00adto\u00adry. There\u2019s the occa\u00adsion\u00adal glim\u00admer. For exam\u00adple, I\u2019m read\u00ading an impres\u00adsive col\u00adlec\u00adtion of papers on the pre\u00adhis\u00adto\u00adry of the Eurasian steppe lands.[1] It is entire\u00adly devot\u00aded to how the ancient peo\u00adples of the region made their liv\u00adings. There are enor\u00admous\u00adly detailed dis\u00adcus\u00adsions of the pos\u00adsi\u00adble rela\u00adtion\u00adships between var\u00adi\u00adous kinds of hunt\u00ading, farm\u00ading, pas\u00adtoral\u00adism, semi-pas\u00adtoral\u00adism, and so one. No fish\u00ading. What struck me most forcibly while read\u00ading the col\u00adlec\u00adtion was how water \u2015 our most urgent neces\u00adsi\u00adty after breath\u00adable air \u2015 was removed from the equa\u00adtion. Yet the region in ques\u00adtion includes vast shore\u00adlines of the Black Sea, the Sea of Azov, the Caspi\u00adan Sea (still famed for its fish\u00aderies), and the Aral Sea; mas\u00adsive lakes like Balkhash and Baykal, and is dis\u00adsect\u00aded by a spi\u00adder\u2019s web of riv\u00ader sys\u00adtems (Dnestr, Dnepr, Don, Vol\u00adga, Amu Darya [= Oxus], Syr Darya, Ob-Irtysh, Tarim, Yenisey, and Amur). Stur\u00adgeon in the Caspi\u00adan and its in-feed\u00ading rivers reach record\u00aded lengths of 5.5 meters and weights of 2000 kilos, and the stur\u00adgeon of the Amur are almost as large. That is more than the weight of three large cows!<\/span><\/p>\n

Yet there are at least a few hints of inter\u00adest, which one would not have seen in an ear\u00adli\u00ader col\u00adlec\u00adtion on the same issue. Some pis\u00adca\u00adto\u00adr\u00adi\u00adal curios\u00adi\u00adty is exhib\u00adit\u00aded in the pref\u00adace, by Col\u00adin Ren\u00adfrew. Ren\u00adfrew is the bad boy of pre\u00adhis\u00adtoric archae\u00adol\u00ado\u00adgy, the ornery advo\u00adcate of alter\u00adna\u00adtive inter\u00adpre\u00adta\u00adtions and the habit\u00adu\u00adal ques\u00adtion\u00ader of ortho\u00addox\u00adies. But even he only says \u201cwe shall have to devote more atten\u00adtion to the role of fish in the diet. It is per\u00adti\u00adnent to ask whether com\u00admu\u00adni\u00adties with fish play\u00ading a more sig\u00adnif\u00adi\u00adcant role in the diet than meat are like\u00adly to have been nomadic. Of course it could be argued that the heart of nomadism is sea\u00adson\u00adal\u00adi\u00adty (usu\u00adal\u00adly in rela\u00adtion to pas\u00adture lands). But the fish in ques\u00adtion are not like\u00adly to have been the anadro\u00admous fish which have a marked sea\u00adson\u00adal\u00adi\u00adty, since most of the rivers in ques\u00adtion are pre\u00adsum\u00adably too far from the sea for migra\u00adto\u00adry pat\u00adterns like those of salmon. Whether there was sea\u00adson\u00adal\u00adi\u00adty in fish resources suf\u00adfi\u00adcient to pro\u00admote mobil\u00adi\u00adty is a mat\u00adter for dis\u00adcus\u00adsion. But in some cas\u00ades these com\u00admu\u00adni\u00adties may have been bet\u00adter off stay\u00ading put where the fish\u00ading was good.<\/em>\u201d[2] But notice that the pres\u00adence of fish\u00ading is here con\u00adsid\u00adered only in rela\u00adtion to its pos\u00adsi\u00adble influ\u00adence on the rise of pastoralism.<\/span><\/p>\n

With\u00adin the region in ques\u00adtion, only three of ten riv\u00ader sys\u00adtems are \u201cdis\u00adtant from the sea\u201d, and the prin\u00adci\u00adpal ones, the Vol\u00adga and the Don, emp\u00adty into the sea with\u00adin the region. Stur\u00adgeon migrate long dis\u00adtances in these riv\u00ader sys\u00adtems, as part of their breed\u00ading cycle. The Vol\u00adga delta on the Caspi\u00adan [3] is among the world\u2019s largest and most com\u00adplex delta sys\u00adtems, and it is the home of the world\u2019s largest stur\u00adgeon breed\u00ading ground. All such delta sys\u00adtems also pro\u00advide rich food resources in the form of game (deer, wild boar), and espe\u00adcial\u00adly fat, high\u00adly edi\u00adble ducks and geese, eco\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly inter\u00adtwined with these rich fish stocks. In this respect, the Vol\u00adga delta resem\u00adbles the net\u00adwork of resources avail\u00adable to the inhab\u00adi\u00adtants of the Nile and Tigris-Euphrates deltas. It seems grotesque\u00adly improb\u00ada\u00adble that the neolith\u00adic inhab\u00adi\u00adtants would ignore such a rich environment.<\/span><\/p>\n

In the search for the ori\u00adgins of tran\u00adshu\u00admance and pas\u00adtoral\u00adism, today\u2019s schol\u00adars have reached a con\u00adsen\u00adsus that these spe\u00adcial\u00adized lifestyles could not exist except sym\u00adbi\u00adot\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly with agri\u00adcul\u00adture. The horse-rid\u00ading nomads of the Kur\u00adgan cul\u00adtures of cen\u00adtral Asia can be traced direct\u00adly to roots among the neolith\u00adic farm\u00aders of the Cucuteni and Tripolye cul\u00adtures, in what is now Mol\u00addavia and the west\u00adern Ukraine.[4] Pure pas\u00adtoral\u00adism is an off\u00adshoot of tran\u00adshu\u00admance, which is itself an off\u00adshoot of mixed farm\u00ading with ani\u00admal hus\u00adbandry. I believe that, as archae\u00ado\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal explo\u00adration becomes more exten\u00adsive and sophis\u00adti\u00adcat\u00aded, we will even\u00adtu\u00adal\u00adly reach a new con\u00adsen\u00adsus in which we will see that neolith\u00adic farm\u00ading com\u00admu\u00adni\u00adties emerged from a sim\u00adi\u00adlar syn\u00ader\u00adgy between crop grow\u00ading and fish\u00ading in river\u00adine, lacus\u00adtrine, and delta\u00adic envi\u00adron\u00adments. In oth\u00ader words, I believe that we will come to under\u00adstand agri\u00adcul\u00adture, tran\u00adshu\u00admance, and even urban\u00adiza\u00adtion as ground\u00aded in an ini\u00adtial stage of exploit\u00ading envi\u00adron\u00adments in which the fish, arthro\u00adpods, shell\u00adfish, plants, game ani\u00admals, and birds asso\u00adci\u00adat\u00aded with lakes and rivers were exploit\u00aded in unison.<\/span><\/p>\n

An obsta\u00adcle to this is a weight of tra\u00addi\u00adtion which sim\u00adply doesn\u2019t look for marine resource exploita\u00adtion. And if you don\u2019t look, in this case, you will not find. Judith Pow\u00adell, in her lit\u00adtle-known study, Fish\u00ading in the Pre\u00adhis\u00adtoric Aegean<\/em> [5] (one of the very few such sur\u00adveys) point\u00aded out that few archae\u00adol\u00ado\u00adgists make the effort nec\u00ades\u00adsary to find on-site evi\u00addence of fish con\u00adsump\u00adtion, and few know the nec\u00ades\u00adsary tech\u00adniques to do so. Shell-fish will leave obvi\u00adous remains in mid\u00addens, but fish bones dis\u00adin\u00adte\u00adgrate quick\u00adly, and often the only sur\u00adviv\u00ading rem\u00adnants are otoliths, which are small par\u00adti\u00adcles of cal\u00adci\u00adum car\u00adbon\u00adate which fish use to ori\u00adent them\u00adselves. These can only be found with screen siev\u00ading. I would add to this the pos\u00adsi\u00adbil\u00adi\u00adty that ear\u00adly farm\u00aders might have recy\u00adcled all their fish waste into their fields, as the Indi\u00adans of New Eng\u00adland did. That would leave no notice\u00adable trace in domes\u00adtic sites. Algonkian agri\u00adcul\u00adture in New Eng\u00adland was ful\u00adly inte\u00adgrat\u00aded with a large-scale fish\u00adery, but its sites would prob\u00ada\u00adbly leave no clear evi\u00addence of this in domes\u00adtic mid\u00addens. Most fish\u00ading equip\u00adment, Pow\u00adell points out, is either unlike\u00adly to sur\u00advive (nets, lines, bas\u00adkets, weirs), is like\u00adly to be lost or dis\u00adposed of where it is used (at sea, on a lake, or a riv\u00ader), or is indis\u00adtin\u00adguish\u00adable from equip\u00adment used for non-fish\u00ading pur\u00adpos\u00ades (knives, tongs, spears, scoops, rakes). It will take a shift in the atti\u00adtudes of archae\u00adol\u00ado\u00adgists to get them to rou\u00adtine\u00adly make the nec\u00ades\u00adsary effort to uncov\u00ader fish\u00ading activ\u00adi\u00adties. This is just begin\u00adning to happen.<\/span><\/p>\n

Yet despite this lack\u00adadaisi\u00adcal ethos, evi\u00addence of fish\u00ading activ\u00adi\u00adty turns up often enough in archae\u00ado\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal sites that it should attract the atten\u00adtion of those who dis\u00adcuss the larg\u00ader scale issues of cul\u00adtur\u00adal evo\u00adlu\u00adtion and pre\u00adhis\u00adtoric macro-eco\u00adnom\u00adics. It just doesn\u2019t seem to.<\/span><\/p>\n

Ren\u00adfrew, and T. Dou\u00adglas Price, are among the few emi\u00adnent archae\u00adol\u00ado\u00adgists who spend any time think\u00ading about marine food resources in pre\u00adhis\u00adto\u00adry. Both have tak\u00aden the trou\u00adble to dis\u00adcuss archae\u00ado\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal sites that are telling\u00adly sig\u00adnif\u00adi\u00adcant. Ren\u00adfrew has also pub\u00adlished, in anoth\u00ader col\u00adlec\u00adtion of papers, the extreme\u00adly impor\u00adtant work of Tam\u00adsin O\u2019Connell, [6] a bioar\u00adchae\u00adol\u00ado\u00adgist at Cam\u00adbridge. Diet leaves an iso\u00adtopic \u201cfin\u00adger\u00adprint\u201d in bone col\u00adla\u00adgen, bone car\u00adbon\u00adate, and hair. O\u2019Connell has been ana\u00adlyz\u00ading this evi\u00addence in a num\u00adber of regions and periods.<\/span><\/p>\n

The Human Jour\u00adney, By Boat<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

Even the most con\u00adser\u00adv\u00ada\u00adtive esti\u00admate places the arrival of the first human beings in Aus\u00adtralia at 40,000 years ago. In order to to do this, the ances\u00adtors of Abo\u00adrig\u00adi\u00adnal Aus\u00adtralians had to cross the 450km Tim\u00ador Sea, which means they had to have sub\u00adstan\u00adtial sail\u00ading skills. For that mat\u00adter, the extreme\u00adly rapid expan\u00adsion of Homo sapi\u00adens from our African home\u00adland to the extrem\u00adi\u00adties of Asia only makes sense if you assume that boats played a part in it. Maps in pale\u00adoan\u00adthro\u00adpol\u00ado\u00adgy books invari\u00adably show big black arrows drawn through the inland blanks of the con\u00adti\u00adnents when they explain this migra\u00adtion. It\u2019s cus\u00adtom\u00adary to describe ear\u00adly humans as evolv\u00ading \u201con the savanah\u201d, and the mind\u2019s eye pic\u00adtures our ances\u00adtors trudg\u00ading pur\u00adpose\u00adful\u00adly across dusty plains, spear in hand, look\u00ading for more and ever larg\u00ader dusty plains. But this is a pro\u00adfound mis\u00adun\u00adder\u00adstand\u00ading of the fos\u00adsil record. The remains of ear\u00adly humans were not found \u201con the savanah\u201d. They were found next to lakes and rivers. Any ecol\u00ado\u00adgist will tell you that the ecosys\u00adtem on either side of a riv\u00ader, or on the shores of a lake, is absolute\u00adly noth\u00ading like the ecosys\u00adtem of a savanah. We evolved in the rich envi\u00adron\u00adment of river\u00adsides, able to swim, and with the high\u00adly spe\u00adcial\u00adized skill of throw\u00ading things, begin\u00adning at first with rocks. The phys\u00adi\u00ado\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal changes we see in pro\u00adto\u00adhu\u00admans, the changes that sent us on a dif\u00adfer\u00adent path from chim\u00adpanzees and bono\u00adbos, make more sense when they are seen as an adap\u00adta\u00adtion to the rock-throw\u00ading strat\u00ade\u00adgy than as an adap\u00adta\u00adtion to walk\u00ading around on the savanah. The two inter\u00adpre\u00adta\u00adtions are not mutu\u00adal\u00adly exclu\u00adsive, but I feel the empha\u00adsis is mis\u00adplaced. Throw\u00ading things is a well-attest\u00aded activ\u00adi\u00adty among our close rel\u00ada\u00adtives (chimps like to throw shit at each oth\u00ader), but it is not very effec\u00adtive with their par\u00adtic\u00adu\u00adlar body con\u00adfig\u00adu\u00adra\u00adtion. Erect humans, how\u00adev\u00ader, are very well built to throw rocks. Among oth\u00ader uses, the rock-throw\u00ading skill allowed us to steal kills from large preda\u00adtors, which hunt\u00aded the her\u00adbi\u00advores that came to drink at rivers. There is sig\u00adnif\u00adi\u00adcant archae\u00ado\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal evi\u00addence of fist-sized throw\u00ading rocks mined by ear\u00adly humans. Such rocks are eas\u00adi\u00adly found on river\u00adbanks, but rare on the open grass\u00adlands. Rivers and lakes were dan\u00adger\u00adous places, but very lucra\u00adtive if you were smart and could throw rocks.<\/span><\/p>\n

It is only a short jump from throw\u00ading rocks to using a spear, and I sug\u00adgest that spears were used to spear fish before they were used to attack mam\u00admalian prey. It is log\u00adi\u00adcal to assume that inno\u00adva\u00adtion took place in cir\u00adcum\u00adstances where dan\u00adger was not loom\u00ading. If you are being chased by a sabre-tooth tiger, you don\u2019t stop and say to your\u00adself \u201cGee, I won\u00adder what I could invent to get out of this sit\u00adu\u00ada\u00adtion\u201d. It is more like\u00adly that the prob\u00adlems pre\u00adsent\u00aded by a vis\u00adi\u00adble sup\u00adply of tasty, but slip\u00adpery fish would ini\u00adti\u00adate inven\u00adtion. The river\u00adine food sup\u00adply of fish, birds\u2019 eggs, tur\u00adtles and tur\u00adtle eggs, tree fruit, and stolen preda\u00adtor kills sounds like a more reli\u00adable base for inno\u00adva\u00adtion than a mirac\u00adu\u00adlous leap to chas\u00ading impalas on the savanah. Human beings have had an inti\u00admate rela\u00adtion\u00adship with water from the begin\u00adning. By fol\u00adlow\u00ading the rivers and lakes of East Africa down to the seashore, anoth\u00ader envi\u00adron\u00adment with a com\u00adplex and var\u00adied sup\u00adply of food, we dis\u00adcov\u00adered the big world out\u00adside of our orig\u00adi\u00adnal cra\u00addle. The ear\u00adli\u00adest \u201cmod\u00adern\u201d human beings, exhibit\u00ading not only our own phys\u00adi\u00adol\u00ado\u00adgy, but appar\u00adent\u00adly equipped with artis\u00adtic impuls\u00ades and a rapid\u00adly evolv\u00ading and diver\u00adsi\u00adfy\u00ading toolk\u00adit, appear on the African seashore, and their mid\u00addens reveal that they con\u00adsumed seafood. Seafood is, in fact, rich in the essen\u00adtial fat\u00adty acids (DHA<\/span>) which are crit\u00adi\u00adcal to brain development.<\/span><\/p>\n

The maps illus\u00adtrat\u00ading the human jour\u00adney should not be filled with big arrows in the emp\u00adty savanahs, but lit\u00adtle, twist\u00ading arrows fol\u00adlow\u00ading coast\u00adlines, lakes, and riv\u00ader val\u00adleys. This is how peo\u00adple move on the ground, at least in the pre\u00adhis\u00adto\u00adry I envi\u00adsion. And if human beings could cross 450 km of ocean to reach Aus\u00adtralia forty thou\u00adsand years ago, then it hard\u00adly seems like\u00adly that they would be stymied by the small patch\u00ades of water sep\u00ada\u00adrat\u00ading the islands of the Aegean dur\u00ading the Mesolith\u00adic era, only a few thou\u00adsand years ago. Yet Judith Pow\u00adell com\u00adplains that archae\u00adol\u00ado\u00adgists have shown the most aston\u00adish\u00ading reluc\u00adtance to con\u00adsid\u00ader that humans inhab\u00adit\u00aded the Cyclades in that era. Reports of mesolith\u00adic arti\u00adfacts and buri\u00adals on those islands were regard\u00aded with intense sus\u00adpi\u00adcion. Even when Cather\u00adine Per\u00adl\u00e8s demon\u00adstrat\u00aded that obsid\u00adi\u00adan found on the Greek main\u00adland, dat\u00aded at 10,000 BC<\/span>, had been import\u00aded from the Cycladic island of Melos, [7] the con\u00adtro\u00adver\u00adsy con\u00adtin\u00adued bit\u00adter\u00adly for years. Not even the com\u00adpelling evi\u00addence that the pygmy hip\u00adpopota\u00admus of Cyprus, made extinct around that same time, was done in by human agency, has put it to rest. [8]<\/span><\/p>\n

Nav\u00adi\u00adga\u00adtion by sea is not like\u00adly to evolve in any soci\u00adety with\u00adout the expe\u00adri\u00adence of fish\u00ading. I sup\u00adpose it is pos\u00adsi\u00adble to imag\u00adine a soci\u00adety in which there are no fish\u00ader\u00admen or fish\u00ading boats sud\u00adden\u00adly get\u00adting a notion to go explor\u00ading the sea, and devel\u00adop\u00ading the tech\u00adnol\u00ado\u00adgy by a crash pro\u00adgram of tri\u00adal and error\u2026. but be hon\u00adest, do you real\u00adly thing it plausible?<\/span><\/p>\n

Fish seem to have begun to be con\u00adsumed in steadi\u00adly increas\u00ading quan\u00adti\u00adties among Euro\u00adpean peo\u00adples start\u00ading 30,000 years ago, though the pat\u00adterns of con\u00adsump\u00adtion var\u00adied tremen\u00addous\u00adly from place to place.<\/span><\/p>\n

Not all neolith\u00adic fish con\u00adsumers lived by the sea. A site on Mount Sandel, in Coun\u00adty Col\u00aderaine Ire\u00adland, was a small com\u00admu\u00adni\u00adty with sol\u00adid res\u00adi\u00adden\u00adtial struc\u00adtures between 7000 and 6000 BC<\/span>, mak\u00ading it the ear\u00adli\u00adest Mesolith\u00adic com\u00admu\u00adni\u00adty known in Ire\u00adland. The site over\u00adlooked the Riv\u00ader Bann. Today, salmon and eel fish\u00aderies are the most impor\u00adtant eco\u00adnom\u00adic fea\u00adtures of the riv\u00ader, and the exca\u00adva\u00adtion found evi\u00addence that those were con\u00adsumed in the mesolith\u00adic set\u00adtle\u00adment. But so were shell\u00adfish, sea bass, and floun\u00adder, and even the occa\u00adsion\u00adal seal. These last are ocean species, though Mount Sandel is a con\u00adsid\u00ader\u00adable dis\u00adtance from the sea. [9] A series of marks on the ground can be inter\u00adpret\u00aded as a fish-dry\u00ading rack.<\/span><\/p>\n

In south\u00adern Scan\u00addi\u00adnavia, abun\u00addant evi\u00addence of fish\u00ading is found in sites from the Magle\u00admosian (7500 \u2014 5700 BC<\/span>), Konge\u00admosian (5700\u20134600 BC<\/span>) and Erte\u00adb\u00f8lle (4600\u20133300 BC<\/span>) peri\u00adods. By the lat\u00adter peri\u00adod, there was a com\u00adplex pat\u00adtern. There were large, peren\u00adni\u00adal occu\u00adpa\u00adtion sites on the coast, with shell-mid\u00addens and a bal\u00adance of land game and marine remains. There were small\u00ader, spe\u00adcial\u00adized pro\u00adcure\u00adment sites along the coast, too, where deep-water fish\u00ading, seal\u00ading, and fowl\u00ading occurred. There were large inland sites occu\u00adpied only in sum\u00admer. There were inland trap\u00adping sta\u00adtions for small fur-bear\u00ading ani\u00admals. And there were large, per\u00adma\u00adnent inland sites sit\u00adu\u00adat\u00aded on lake shores. [10]<\/span><\/p>\n

At Vlas\u00adsac, a large, per\u00adma\u00adnent pre-agri\u00adcul\u00adtur\u00adal set\u00adtle\u00adment near the Iron Gate of the Danube (c. 6000 BC<\/span>) was part\u00adly sup\u00adport\u00aded by hunt\u00ading ibex and deer, but per\u00adhaps more impor\u00adtant were large Danube cat\u00adfish, weigh\u00ading up to a hun\u00addred kilos. [11]<\/span><\/p>\n

A site in Dagh\u00ades\u00adtan, on the west\u00adern shore of the Caspi\u00adan Sea, between 3600 and 1900 BC<\/span>, was, accord\u00ading to its exca\u00adva\u00adtors, \u201ca sophis\u00adti\u00adcat\u00aded com\u00admu\u00adni\u00adty prac\u00adtic\u00ading agri\u00adcul\u00adture and rais\u00ading live\u00adstock on the coastal plain<\/em>\u201d. [12] It also exploit\u00aded the stur\u00adgeon and shell\u00adfish resources of the Caspi\u00adan. Clear\u00adly fish\u00ading was not a last ditch, des\u00adper\u00ada\u00adtion, or fall-back food, as some archae\u00adol\u00ado\u00adgists have imput\u00aded for Mediter\u00adranean seafood in the Neolith\u00adic. [13] The inhab\u00adi\u00adtants were in a posi\u00adtion to plant and main\u00adtain vin\u00adyards. Fish\u00ading was clear\u00adly one com\u00adpo\u00adnent in a rich and com\u00adplex local economy.<\/span><\/p>\n

By the Late Neolith\u00adic, marine foods are com\u00admon\u00adplace. But some\u00adtimes the geo\u00adgraph\u00adi\u00adcal dis\u00adtri\u00adb\u00adu\u00adtion is counter-intu\u00aditive. The Orkney Islands host\u00aded a thriv\u00ading neolith\u00adic com\u00admu\u00adni\u00adty of farm\u00aders, but they seem to have only con\u00adsumed mod\u00adest amounts of eas\u00adi\u00adly acquired inshore fish. [They had to wait until the Viking Age, before fish\u00ading seems to have pro\u00advid\u00aded the bulk of their diet, and they even\u00adtu\u00adal\u00adly export\u00aded cured fish to the con\u00adti\u00adnent in the Mid\u00addle Ages] [14] . In con\u00adtrast, con\u00adtem\u00adpo\u00adrary (cir\u00adca 3,500 BC<\/span>) sites on the west coast of Scot\u00adland, Wales, and Eng\u00adland have pro\u00adduced mas\u00adsive shell-mid\u00addens and evi\u00addence of fish as a sta\u00adple food.<\/span><\/p>\n

So What Is My Point, Then?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

I believe that the accu\u00admu\u00adlat\u00ading evi\u00addence will short\u00adly cause us to shift gears in our con\u00adcep\u00adtu\u00adal\u00adiz\u00ading of the evo\u00adlu\u00adtion of human soci\u00adety in the Neolith\u00adic era. My guess, for what it\u2019s worth, is that in anoth\u00ader decade or so we will be tak\u00ading it for grant\u00aded that the activ\u00adi\u00adties of fish\u00ader\u00admen are the key to under\u00adstand\u00ading the evo\u00adlu\u00adtion of vil\u00adlage life and agri\u00adcul\u00adture. At least in Europe, the Mid\u00addle East, and the Mediter\u00adranean, and per\u00adhaps in India. I believe that ulti\u00admate\u00adly we will even tie the devel\u00adop\u00adment of what we call \u201curban civ\u00adi\u00adliza\u00adtions\u201d to this same tem\u00adplate. Why? Because fish\u00ader\u00admen com\u00adbine mobil\u00adi\u00adty with sta\u00adbil\u00adi\u00adty. I don\u2019t think that agri\u00adcul\u00adtur\u00adal vil\u00adlages filled up Europe in the fash\u00adion that Ren\u00adfrew describes: a car\u00adpet of cleared land and vil\u00adlages advanc\u00ading a kilo\u00adme\u00adter at a time, as each fam\u00adi\u00adly split up and its off\u00adshoots trudged a short dis\u00adtance to the near\u00adest new home\u00adstead. I believe that agri\u00adcul\u00adture infil\u00adtrat\u00aded an already exist\u00ading web of fast mov\u00ading con\u00adnec\u00adtions along rivers, lakes and shores. Agri\u00adcul\u00adtur\u00adal vil\u00adlages formed on nodes already cre\u00adat\u00aded by fish\u00ading com\u00admu\u00adni\u00adties, some sea\u00adson\u00adal, some per\u00adma\u00adnent. These inter\u00adlinked fish\u00ading set\u00adtle\u00adments had already cre\u00adat\u00aded a web of long dis\u00adtance trade that began with dried and salt\u00aded fish, which are com\u00adpact pack\u00adets of pro\u00adtein that can trav\u00adel great dis\u00adtances before los\u00ading their val\u00adue. To this sim\u00adple trade, any num\u00adber of portable com\u00admodi\u00adties could be added, from amber to native cop\u00adper to treat\u00aded hides, and jerkies. The surest way to open up an area for its first agri\u00adcul\u00adtur\u00adal set\u00adtle\u00adments would have been for farm\u00aders to attach them\u00adselves to such a pre-exist\u00ading net\u00adwork. The sym\u00adbio\u00adsis between riv\u00ader trav\u00adel, trade at a dis\u00adtance, fish\u00ading, hunt\u00ading and agri\u00adcul\u00adture would have been the dynamo that drove the Neolith\u00adic trans\u00adfor\u00adma\u00adtion, and the spec\u00adtac\u00adu\u00adlar increase in pop\u00adu\u00adla\u00adtion asso\u00adci\u00adat\u00aded with it. Instead of an expand\u00ading \u201cwave front\u201d grow\u00ading by one farm\u00adstead at a time, I pic\u00adture small clus\u00adters of set\u00adtlers mov\u00ading fair\u00adly long dis\u00adtances, by boat, along rivers and shores well known already, to places which already held sym\u00adbi\u00adot\u00adic poten\u00adtial. I think the best place to look for evi\u00addence of this process would be along the rivers of north\u00adern Ger\u00admany and Poland, where the Neolith\u00adic Lin\u00adear Pot\u00adtery cul\u00adture clear\u00adly sends \u201cfin\u00adgers\u201d north\u00adward along the course of the rivers. I believe the key to under\u00adstand\u00ading the move\u00adment of neolith\u00adic farm\u00aders lies in rec\u00adog\u00adniz\u00ading the impor\u00adtance of fish\u00ader\u00admen, their boats, and their spec\u00adtac\u00adu\u00adlar mobility.<\/span><\/p>\n

A Fishi\u00ader Look at the Urban Revolution<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

The urban rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion of Mesopotamia began in a swamp. The Marsh Arabs, until recent\u00adly, still lived the kind of life that was the start\u00ading point of the urban rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion. They hunt\u00aded the game and fowl that thrive in the marsh\u00adlands. They farmed on lit\u00adtle bits of \u201cland\u201d that they con\u00adstruct\u00aded by an elab\u00ado\u00adrate process of assem\u00adbling mat\u00adted reeds and con\u00adtain\u00ading mud until they have a dry sur\u00adface \u2015 a sort of inverse irri\u00adga\u00adtion, \u201clandi\u00adga\u00adtion\u201d, on which they grew crops and kept domes\u00adtic ani\u00admals. But first and fore\u00admost, they were fish\u00ader\u00admen. And the crit\u00adi\u00adcal fact is that fish\u00ader\u00admen trav\u00adeled and trad\u00aded as well as fished. Fish\u00ading pro\u00adduces sharp spikes in pro\u00adduc\u00adtiv\u00adi\u00adty, which can be dis\u00adposed of through trade because the pro\u00adduc\u00aders of the sur\u00adplus, being fish\u00ader\u00admen with boats, already have<\/em> the most effi\u00adcient means of trans\u00adport\u00ading them to mar\u00adket. Sur\u00adplus\u00ades in agri\u00adcul\u00adtur\u00adal pro\u00adduc\u00adtion could rarely move any great dis\u00adtance, as the cost of trans\u00adport\u00ading over\u00adland, feed\u00ading trac\u00adtion ani\u00admals as you go, absorbs the sur\u00adplus. That is why inland empires often expe\u00adri\u00adenced famines in one province while neigh\u00adbour\u00ading provinces pro\u00adduced abun\u00addant har\u00advests. Dried and smoked fish remain edi\u00adble long enough to be trans\u00adport\u00aded great dis\u00adtances. The reg\u00adu\u00adlar\u00adly occur\u00adring super-abun\u00addance of salmon at the mouth of the Colum\u00adbia Riv\u00ader, for exam\u00adple, was the foun\u00adda\u00adtion of a vast net\u00adwork of trade over thou\u00adsands of kilo\u00adme\u00adters, and a huge assort\u00adment of oth\u00ader prod\u00aducts (buf\u00adfalo robes, pem\u00admi\u00adcan, feath\u00ader head\u00addresses, parflech\u00ades, catli\u00adn\u00adite, whale and seal bone and oils, orna\u00admen\u00adtal shells, obsid\u00adian, bas\u00adket\u00adwork, canoes, hemp, pelts and hides, bit\u00adte\u00adroot, camas, and wap\u00ada\u00adtoo) pig\u00adgy-backed on that trade.
\n<\/span><\/p>\n

In the fourth mil\u00adlen\u00adni\u00adum BC<\/span>, Uruk, some\u00adtimes called the first \u201ctrue city\u201d was found\u00aded. Whether this title is accu\u00adrate or not, Uruk was the first city in Sume\u00adria to under\u00adgo the phe\u00adnom\u00ade\u00adnal trans\u00adfor\u00adma\u00adtion that is called the \u201cUrban Revolution.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n

Uruk was built exact\u00adly where the marsh met the dry land, at a place acces\u00adsi\u00adble both to the main course of the Euphrates, and to the ocean by way of a series of inter\u00adlocked lagoons. Its ear\u00adly archi\u00adtec\u00adtur\u00adal forms mim\u00adic, in mud brick, the reed hous\u00ades still built today in the marsh\u00ades. Uruk was first a trad\u00ading place for fish. Bas\u00adkets of fish where the usu\u00adal offer\u00adings to the tem\u00adple in the ear\u00adly days. [16] Then it became a trad\u00ading place for any\u00adthing that could move by boat. Even before Uruk under\u00adwent spec\u00adtac\u00adu\u00adlar growth, it\u2019s trad\u00ading con\u00adnec\u00adtions with the dis\u00adtant land of Dil\u00admun (Bahrain) were evi\u00addent. A chain of trade car\u00adried by riv\u00ader and sea, extend\u00ading thou\u00adsands of kilo\u00adme\u00adters, is demon\u00adstra\u00adble. Arti\u00adcles as dis\u00adtant as the spe\u00adcial\u00adty woods of India and Lebanon came to its docks, by boat.<\/span><\/p>\n

And the trade was pos\u00adsi\u00adble because Uruk had become a man\u00adu\u00adfac\u00adtur\u00ader of tex\u00adtiles and oth\u00ader prod\u00aducts for export. We find Sumer\u00adian tex\u00adtiles replac\u00ading local\u00adly made prod\u00aducts over a wide region. Ulti\u00admate\u00adly, Sume\u00adri\u00ada\u2019s indus\u00adtri\u00adal and intel\u00adlec\u00adtu\u00adal cul\u00adture came to dom\u00adi\u00adnate the entire Near East, and its lan\u00adguage con\u00adtin\u00adued to be stud\u00adied long after it ceased to be spo\u00adken. It\u2019s writ\u00ading sys\u00adtem, invent\u00aded at first mere\u00adly to do book-keep\u00ading, became the basis for hun\u00addreds of oth\u00aders. None of this was pos\u00adsi\u00adble with\u00adout boats and sea\u00admen, experts in nav\u00adi\u00adga\u00adtion and trav\u00adel and trade, peo\u00adple who had to have begun as fishermen.<\/span><\/p>\n

The agri\u00adcul\u00adtur\u00adal inno\u00adva\u00adtion of long fields and irri\u00adga\u00adtion con\u00adtrolled by the tem\u00adples may have been a sig\u00adnif\u00adi\u00adcant ele\u00adment of the urban econ\u00ado\u00admy, but it was not what made Uruk, or even what made Uruk pos\u00adsi\u00adble. It was not a \u201csur\u00adplus of food\u201d pro\u00adduced by irri\u00adga\u00adtion that gen\u00ader\u00adat\u00aded the urban rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion, nor was it the cen\u00adtral\u00adized direc\u00adtion of a wealthy elite. The tem\u00adple com\u00adplex and its cen\u00adtral\u00adly man\u00adaged sys\u00adtem of irri\u00adga\u00adtion were not the cre\u00adative force behind Uruk\u2019s growth. It was mere\u00adly an insti\u00adtu\u00adtion that cashed in on it. The tem\u00adples made their sub\u00adstan\u00adtial prof\u00adits by man\u00adu\u00adfac\u00adtur\u00ading tex\u00adtiles with slave labour, over\u00adwhelm\u00ading\u00adly that of women and chil\u00addren. These were at first chil\u00addren \u201coffered\u201d to the tem\u00adple, then vic\u00adtims cap\u00adtured in war, and even\u00adtu\u00adal\u00adly bank\u00adrupt\u00aded peas\u00adants and city dwellers who found them\u00adselves in debt bondage. [17] They worked in com\u00adbi\u00adna\u00adtion prison\/factories, weav\u00ading wool into exportable tex\u00adtiles. The long-field irri\u00adga\u00adtion sys\u00adtem mere\u00adly pro\u00advid\u00aded bar\u00adley to keep them fed, and to pay the guards and sol\u00addiers who enforced the sys\u00adtem. Far from being a \u201credis\u00adtrib\u00adu\u00adtive econ\u00ado\u00admy\u201d, as fans of the tem\u00adple elite are wont to describe it, the temple\u2019s admin\u00adis\u00adtra\u00adtive aim was always to min\u00adi\u00admize any redis\u00adtri\u00adb\u00adu\u00adtion it was forced to do. There is no men\u00adtion of what hap\u00adpened to the army of women and chil\u00addren tex\u00adtile weavers after they wore out, for instance. There is no evi\u00addence that any\u00adone fed them after that. The tem\u00adples acquired the wool on a con\u00adtract basis from shep\u00adherds, and doubt\u00adless could dri\u00adve a hard bar\u00adgain with them, but they could not con\u00adtrol them. [18] The irri\u00adga\u00adtion share\u00adcrop\u00adpers were main\u00adtained at the bare min\u00adi\u00admum that would keep them alive. The prof\u00adit mar\u00adgin for the tem\u00adple was made by extract\u00ading forced \u201ccorv\u00e9e\u201d labour from peas\u00adants at var\u00adi\u00adous stages in the oper\u00ada\u00adtion, and by the low cost of child slaves in the key man\u00adu\u00adfac\u00adtur\u00ading process.<\/span><\/p>\n

Only a quar\u00adter of Uruk\u2019s pop\u00adu\u00adla\u00adtion was ever tied to the tem\u00adple sys\u00adtem, and the nor\u00admal form of irri\u00adga\u00adtion that actu\u00adal\u00adly fed peo\u00adple was a sys\u00adtem of local vil\u00adlage-reg\u00adu\u00adlat\u00aded, decen\u00adtral\u00adized square-field irri\u00adga\u00adtion. [19] You see the same split in lat\u00ader eras between indi\u00advid\u00adual Roman farm\u00aders and the vast, slave-worked lat\u00adi\u00adfun\u00addia<\/em>. Those who were locked into the tem\u00adple cor\u00adpo\u00adrate sys\u00adtem were slaves, or indebt\u00aded share-crop\u00adpers, who did not sig\u00adnif\u00adi\u00adcant\u00adly ben\u00ade\u00adfit from the sys\u00adtem, though the yields may have been high\u00ader than the tra\u00addi\u00adtion\u00adal sys\u00adtem\u2019s. [20] Thus, the tem\u00adple was essen\u00adtial\u00adly a par\u00ada\u00adsitic oper\u00ada\u00adtion graft\u00aded onto a city that had already had a spec\u00adtac\u00adu\u00adlar growth spurt, based on trade. Once a tem\u00adple gained polit\u00adi\u00adcal mas\u00adtery of an ear\u00adly Sumer\u00adian city state, its pop\u00adu\u00adla\u00adtion rapid\u00adly declined and eco\u00adnom\u00adic growth end\u00aded. Because the region is flat, now arid and thin\u00adly inhab\u00adit\u00aded, it is pos\u00adsi\u00adble to form a very good pic\u00adture of its demo\u00adgraph\u00adics over a long span of time. Back when Iraq was acces\u00adsi\u00adble, just such a sur\u00advey of all vil\u00adlage sites was car\u00adried out. This revealed that the peri\u00adod of Uruk\u2019s spec\u00adtac\u00adu\u00adlar growth was very short. In the ear\u00adly dynam\u00adic phase, there is lit\u00adtle evi\u00addence of great social inequal\u00adi\u00adties. Once the tem\u00adple insti\u00adtu\u00adtions became extreme\u00adly pow\u00ader\u00adful, pop\u00adu\u00adla\u00adtion growth con\u00adtin\u00adued in the cities for awhile, as tem\u00adple-con\u00adtrolled vil\u00adlages emp\u00adtied out and impov\u00ader\u00adished peas\u00adants went the only place they could go. Then, the city itself became par\u00ada\u00adlyzed, and rapid\u00adly declined in pop\u00adu\u00adla\u00adtion. The same cycle was repeat\u00aded in oth\u00ader tem\u00adple-con\u00adtrolled city states. This is pre\u00adcise\u00adly what hap\u00adpens to a mod\u00adern city when a large man\u00adu\u00adfac\u00adtur\u00ading enter\u00adprise emerges from a vital and var\u00adied local econ\u00ado\u00admy, gains con\u00adtrol of its polit\u00adi\u00adcal insti\u00adtu\u00adtions, estab\u00adlish\u00ades a monop\u00adoly, and con\u00adverts it into a \u201cone-indus\u00adtry town\u201d. Our mod\u00adern world is lit\u00adtered with the corpses of once-cre\u00adative cities, con\u00advert\u00aded into stag\u00adnant com\u00adpa\u00adny towns. Ancient Sume\u00adria was lit\u00adtered with the corpses of failed city-states, where the \u201ctem\u00adple\u201d cor\u00adpo\u00adra\u00adtion did the same kind of stuff.<\/span><\/p>\n

No it was not tem\u00adples, and not irri\u00adga\u00adtion, and not a \u201cstrat\u00adi\u00adfied soci\u00adety\u201d that cre\u00adat\u00aded the first urban rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion. It was fish, and fish\u00ader\u00admen, and the trade net\u00adworks that they cre\u00adat\u00aded. In this way, the Urban rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion was repeat\u00ading the dynam\u00adics of the Neolith\u00adic Agri\u00adcul\u00adtur\u00adal Rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion that pre\u00adced\u00aded it.<\/span><\/p>\n

But nobody seems to like his\u00adto\u00adry when it is made by any\u00adone as pro\u00adsa\u00adic as fish\u00ader\u00admen, and any\u00adthing as unex\u00adcit\u00ading as fish.<\/span><\/p>\n

\u2014\u2013<\/span><\/p>\n

[1] Boyle, Katie; Col\u00adin Ren\u00adfrew &<\/span> Mar\u00adsha Levine \u2014 Ancient Inter\u00adac\u00adtions: East and West in Eura\u00adsia<\/em> \u2014 McDon\u00adald Insti\u00adtute Mono\u00adgraphs. 2002.<\/span>
\n [2] Ren\u00adfrew, Col\u00adin \u2014 Pas\u00adtoral\u00adism and Inter\u00adac\u00adtion: Some Intro\u00adduc\u00adto\u00adry Ques\u00adtion<\/em>s [in Boyle, Katie; Ren\u00adfrew Levine] . p.4<\/span>
\n [3] The Vol\u00adga Delta region has been crossed by many eth\u00adnic migra\u00adtions, and incor\u00adpo\u00adrat\u00aded into a num\u00adber of states dom\u00adi\u00adnat\u00aded by pas\u00adtoral\u00adist \u201chordes\u201d. After 1630, the region was inhab\u00adit\u00aded by the Kalmyks, a Mon\u00adgo\u00adlian-lan\u00adguage group prac\u00adtic\u00ading Tibetan Bud\u00addhism. Before that, it was under the sway of the<\/span>
\n Tur\u00adkic-speak\u00ading Nogai. Before that, pre\u00adsum\u00adably var\u00adi\u00adous Indo-Iran\u00adian peoples.<\/span>
\n [4] Good\u00ade\u00adnough, Ward \u2014 The Evo\u00adlu\u00adtion of Pas\u00adtoral\u00adism and Indo-Euro\u00adpean Ori\u00adgins<\/em> [in Car\u00addona, George; Hen\u00adry M. Hoenigswald; &<\/span> Alfred Senn \u2014 Indo-Euro\u00adpean and Indo-Euro\u00adpeans: Papers-Indo-Euro\u00adpean Con\u00adfer\u00adence, 3d, Uni\u00adver\u00adsi\u00adty of Penn\u00adsyl\u00adva\u00adnia, 1966<\/em> \u2014 U of Penn\u00adsyl\u00adva\u00adnia P \u2014 1970. p.262<\/span>
\n [5] Pow\u00adell, Judith \u2014 Fish\u00ading in the Pre\u00adhis\u00adtoric Aegean<\/em> \u2014 Paul \u00c5str\u00f6ms F\u00f6r\u00adlag \u2014 1996<\/span>
\n [6] O\u2019Con\u00adnell T.C., Levine M.A., and Hedges R.E.M. (2003). The impor\u00adtance of fish in the diet of cen\u00adtral Eurasian peo\u00adples from the Mesolith\u00adic to <\/em>the Ear\u00adly Iron Age<\/em>. In: M.A. Levine, A.C. Ren\u00adfrew, and K. Boyle (eds.), Pre\u00adhis\u00adtoric Steppe Adap\u00adta\u00adtion and the Horse,<\/em> McDon\u00adald Insti\u00adtute Mono\u00adgraph, pp. 253\u2013268.<\/span>
\n Cam\u00adbridge: McDon\u00adald Insti\u00adtute for Archae\u00ado\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal Research.<\/span>
\n [7] Simp\u00adson, Allan H. \u2014 Fau\u00adnal Extinc\u00adtion On an Island Soci\u00adety: Pygmy Hip\u00adpopota\u00admus Hunters of Cyprus \u2014 Inter\u00addis\u00adci\u00adpli\u00adnary Con\u00adtri\u00adbu\u00adtions to Archae\u00adol\u00ado\u00adgy; Springer \u2014 1999 p.<\/span>
\n [8] ibid<\/em><\/span>
\n [9] Wood\u00adman, Peter C. \u2014 A Mesolith\u00adic Camp in Ire\u00adland<\/em> \u2014 Sci\u00aden\u00adtif\u00adic Amer\u00adi\u00adcan vol. 254, no. 2, , pp. 120\u2013132 \u2014 1981. &<\/span> Why not an Irish Upper Pale\u00adolith\u00adic? Stud\u00adies in the Upper Pale\u00adolith\u00adic of Britain and North\u00adwest Europe<\/em>. British Archae\u00ado\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal Reports, Inter\u00adna\u00adtion\u00adal Series 296:43\u20135 \u2014 1986.<\/span>
\n [10] Price, T. Dou\u00adglas \u2014 The Euro\u00adpean Mesolith\u00adic<\/em> \u2014 Amer\u00adi\u00adcan Antiq\u00adui\u00adty 48:4 \u2014 1983. p.768\u2013769<\/span>
\n [11] Prinz, Beth \u2014 Mesolith\u00adic Adap\u00adta\u00adtions on the Low\u00ader Danube: Vlasac and the Iron Gates Gorge<\/em> \u2014 Oxford : B.A.R., 1987<\/span>
\n [12] Kohl, Philip L.; Magomed G. Gadzhiev &<\/span> Rabadan G. Magome\u00addov \u2014 Between the Steppe and the Sown: Cul\u00adtur\u00adal Devel\u00adop\u00adments on the Caspi\u00adan Lit\u00adtoral <\/em>Plain of South\u00adern Dagh\u00ades\u00adtan, Rus\u00adsia, c. 3600\u20131900 BC<\/span> <\/em> [in Boyle, Katie; Col\u00adin Ren\u00adfrew &<\/span> Mar\u00adsha Levine \u2014 Ancient Inter\u00adac\u00adtions: East and West in Eura\u00adsia<\/em> \u2014 McDon\u00adald Insti\u00adtute Mono\u00adgraphs. 2002.]. p.127<\/span>
\n [13] Pow\u00adell \u2014 ibid<\/em><\/span>
\n [14] Bar\u00adrett, James H.; R. P. Beukens &<\/span> R. A. Nichol\u00adson. \u2014 Diet and eth\u00adnic\u00adi\u00adty dur\u00ading the Viking coloni\u00adsa\u00adtion of north\u00adern Scot\u00adland : Evi\u00addence from fish bones <\/em>and sta\u00adble car\u00adbon iso\u00adtopes<\/em>. Antiq\u00adui\u00adty 75:145\u2013154. \u20112001<\/span>
\n [15] Bar\u00adret, James H.; R. A. Nichol\u00adson, &<\/span> R. Cer\u00f3n-Car\u00adras\u00adco \u2014 Archaeo-ichthy\u00adolog\u00adi\u00adcal Evi\u00addence for Long-term Socioe\u00adco\u00adnom\u00adic Trends in North\u00adern <\/em>Scot\u00adland : 3500 BC<\/span> to AD<\/span> 1500<\/em><\/span>
\n [16] Edwards, I. E. S., C. J. Gadd, N. G. L. Ham\u00admond \u2013ed. \u2014 The Cam\u00adbridge Ancient His\u00adto\u00adry, Third Edi\u00adtion; vol.1, part 1: Pro\u00adle\u00adgom\u00ade\u00adna and Pre\u00adhis\u00adto\u00adry<\/em> \u2014 Cam\u00adbridge U P 1970 p.332<\/span>
\n [17] Liv\u00aderani, Mario \u2014 Uruk, the First City<\/em>. Equinox. 2006. [edit\u00aded and trans\u00adlat\u00aded by Zainab Bahrani &<\/span> Marc Van De Mieroop. Orig\u00adi\u00adnal\u00adly pub\u00adlished in Ital\u00adian as Uruk: La Pri\u00adma Cit\u00adt\u00e0<\/em>. Lat\u00aderza &<\/span> Figli. 1998] p.36<\/span>
\n [18] ibid p.36<\/span>
\n [19] ibid<\/em> p.28\u201331<\/span>
\n [20] Liv\u00aderani asserts spec\u00adtac\u00adu\u00adlar\u00adly high\u00ader yields, with no con\u00advinc\u00ading evidence.<\/span>
\n [21] Adams, Robert McCormick &<\/span> Hans J. Nis\u00adsen \u2014 The Uruk Coun\u00adtry\u00adside: The Nat\u00adur\u00adal Set\u00adting of Urban Soci\u00adeties<\/em> \u2014 U Chica\u00adgo P \u2014 1972.. p.18<\/span><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

For the last fif\u00adteen years, I\u2019ve been com\u00adplain\u00ading to every\u00adone I know about the pecu\u00adliar absence of fish from his\u00adtor\u00adi\u00adcal writ\u00ading and analy\u00adsis. Go into any uni\u00adver\u00adsi\u00adty library, and you will find the stacks filled with mas\u00adsive col\u00adlec\u00adtions of books and \u2026<\/p>\n

Read more \u00bb<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"wp_typography_post_enhancements_disabled":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[1,10],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-1062","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-a-blog","category-as-blog-2008"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1062","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=1062"}],"version-history":[{"count":6,"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1062\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":8696,"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1062\/revisions\/8696"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=1062"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcategories&post=1062"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Ftags&post=1062"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}