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<\/a><\/p>\nThe dom\u00adi\u00adnant school, today, of inter\u00adpret\u00ading the Neolith\u00adic arose in reac\u00adtion to ear\u00adli\u00ader schools of thought, which viewed pre\u00adhis\u00adto\u00adry as a series of migra\u00adtions and inva\u00adsions of eth\u00adnic groups, each one held to account for some dif\u00adfer\u00adence in mate\u00adr\u00adi\u00adal cul\u00adture. Lan\u00adguage and eth\u00adnic\u00adi\u00adty were, with only per\u00adfunc\u00adto\u00adry reser\u00adva\u00adtions, assumed to be con\u00adgru\u00adent. The spread of agri\u00adcul\u00adture in Europe and the spread of Indo-Euro\u00adpean lan\u00adguages were assumed to be dif\u00adfer\u00adent events, tak\u00ading place at dif\u00adfer\u00adent times. It was assumed that agri\u00adcul\u00adture spread into Europe, from its ori\u00adgins in the Mid\u00addle East, start\u00ading some\u00adtime around the sixth mil\u00adlen\u00adni\u00adum BC<\/span>. Much lat\u00ader, Indo-Euro\u00adpean tribes of con\u00adquerors, empow\u00adered by their domes\u00adti\u00adca\u00adtion of the horse, swept across Europe (as well as Iran, Cen\u00adtral Asia, and India) impos\u00ading their lan\u00adguage, reli\u00adgion, and social struc\u00adture on every\u00adone in their path. The \u201corig\u00adi\u00adnal home\u00adland\u201d of the Indo-Euro\u00adpeans, these puta\u00adtive con\u00adquerors, was thought to be some\u00adwhere in the present Ukraine, and much effort was made to deter\u00admine this loca\u00adtion by exam\u00adin\u00ading the var\u00adi\u00adous Indo-Euro\u00adpean lan\u00adguages. Thus, the orig\u00adi\u00adnal farm\u00aders of Europe were held to be non-Indo-Euro\u00adpean-speak\u00ading natives, sub\u00adse\u00adquent\u00adly over\u00adpow\u00adered by an Indo-Euro\u00adpean \u00e9lite, who imposed their lan\u00adguage on all but a few iso\u00adlat\u00aded groups \u2014 the Basques, the Finno-Ugri\u00adan peo\u00adples of the North, and the Etr\u00aduscans. The most elo\u00adquent cham\u00adpi\u00adon of this mod\u00adel was the Lithuan\u00adian-Amer\u00adi\u00adcan archae\u00adol\u00ado\u00adgist Mar\u00adi\u00adja Gimbu\u00adtas (1901\u20131994). Gimbu\u00adtas envi\u00adsioned a pre-Indo-Euro\u00adpean agri\u00adcul\u00adtur\u00adal soci\u00adety in Europe which was matris\u00adtic and \u201cGod\u00addess-cen\u00adtered\u201d, and peace\u00adful, while the con\u00adquer\u00ading Indo-Euro\u00adpeans were patris\u00adtic and vio\u00adlent. These Indo-Euro\u00adpeans were iden\u00adti\u00adfied as specif\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly being the Kur\u00adgan cul\u00adture of the west\u00adern Eurasian steppes. This rather car\u00adtoon\u00adish view of the Neolith\u00adic, which relied on cul\u00adtur\u00adal\u00adly com\u00adfort\u00adable notions of gen\u00adder dual\u00adi\u00adty and also on tra\u00addi\u00adtion\u00adal, but bio\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly naive, ideas of race and eth\u00adnic\u00adi\u00adty, had a tremen\u00addous influ\u00adence, not only on his\u00adto\u00adri\u00adans, but on pop\u00adu\u00adlar culture.<\/p>\n How\u00adev\u00ader, Gimbu\u00adtas\u2019 con\u00adcepts always encoun\u00adtered skep\u00adtics and crit\u00adics, and in the 1980\u2019s, their crit\u00adi\u00adcisms were syn\u00adthe\u00adsized by the British archae\u00adol\u00ado\u00adgist Col\u00adin Ren\u00adfrew. Renfrew\u2019s opin\u00adions con\u00adtra\u00addict almost every ele\u00adment of Gimbu\u00adtas\u2019 imag\u00adined Neolith\u00adic. He believes that the Indo-Euro\u00adpean lan\u00adguages orig\u00adi\u00adnat\u00aded in the Mid\u00addle East, in cen\u00adtral Ana\u00adto\u00adlia, among the peo\u00adple who first domes\u00adti\u00adcat\u00aded plants and ani\u00admals. The spread of agri\u00adcul\u00adture and the spread of Indo-Euro\u00adpean lan\u00adguages were, he believes, effec\u00adtive\u00adly con\u00adgru\u00adent. His argu\u00adment is that farm\u00ading, even of the most prim\u00adi\u00adtive kind, would auto\u00admat\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly sup\u00adport an over\u00adwhelm\u00ading\u00adly denser pop\u00adu\u00adla\u00adtion, and that what\u00adev\u00ader hunter-gath\u00ader\u00ading soci\u00adeties exist\u00aded before the arrival of farm\u00aders would have been rapid\u00adly out\u00adnum\u00adbered and dis\u00adplaced. Only a hand\u00adful of \u201cnative peo\u00adple\u201d, who were astute enough to adopt agri\u00adcul\u00adture before they were dis\u00adplaced, man\u00adaged to pre\u00adserve their non-Indo-Euro\u00adpean lan\u00adguages, account\u00ading for the sur\u00advival of the Basques today. Inva\u00adsions and con\u00adquests by a lat\u00ader Kur\u00adgan cul\u00adture across the huge area from West\u00adern Europe to Ben\u00adgal, Ren\u00adfrew dis\u00admiss\u00ades as a fan\u00adta\u00adsy. From the 1980\u2019s onward, Ren\u00adfrew and his fol\u00adlow\u00aders picked apart the incon\u00adsis\u00adten\u00adcies and ques\u00adtioned the archae\u00ado\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal and lin\u00adguis\u00adtic evi\u00addence for Gimbutas\u2019s the\u00adsis. They were large\u00adly suc\u00adcess\u00adful in doing so, and cur\u00adrent\u00adly, a mod\u00adel that basi\u00adcal\u00adly reflects Renfrew\u2019s views dom\u00adi\u00adnates. It is wide\u00adly held with\u00adin the broad\u00ader frame\u00adwork of what is usu\u00adal\u00adly called \u201cProces\u00adsu\u00adal Archae\u00adol\u00ado\u00adgy\u201d, In recent years, there has been a lot of archae\u00ado\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal writ\u00ading which has either described itself or been labeled as \u201cPost-Proces\u00adsu\u00adal\u201d, but none of it seems to address the ques\u00adtions under con\u00adsid\u00ader\u00ada\u00adtion here (and it is some\u00adtimes dif\u00adfi\u00adcult to deter\u00admine exact\u00adly what ques\u00adtions it address\u00ades \u2014 it seems to con\u00adsist most\u00adly of vague\u00adly asso\u00adci\u00adat\u00ading archae\u00ado\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal sites or arti\u00adfacts with para\u00adgraphs of inchoate, and some\u00adtimes com\u00adplete\u00adly mean\u00ading\u00adless jar\u00adgon lift\u00aded from out\u00admod\u00aded and inane French philo\u00adsoph\u00adi\u00adcal fash\u00adions of the 1970\u2019s, much in the same way that you find fad\u00aded Mot\u00adley Crue t\u2013shirts on the backs of Brazil\u00adian favel\u00adla children.)<\/p>\n My prob\u00adlem with this con\u00adsen\u00adsus is not with its basic ele\u00adments, but with the way it has been applied. I think that some unex\u00adam\u00adined \u201cbag\u00adgage\u201d has accom\u00adpa\u00adnied the devel\u00adop\u00adment of the new con\u00adsen\u00adsus, in much the same way that the old one car\u00adried along dubi\u00adous notions that were not reflect\u00aded in the evidence.<\/p>\n Since the old con\u00adsen\u00adsus pic\u00adtured exten\u00adsive migra\u00adtions of war\u00adrior aris\u00adto\u00adcrats sweep\u00ading across the Neolith\u00adic world, the new con\u00adsen\u00adsus react\u00aded by empha\u00adsiz\u00ading sta\u00adt\u00adic pop\u00adu\u00adla\u00adtions. They pic\u00adtured a \u201cwave-front\u201d of agri\u00adcul\u00adture mov\u00ading out of Ana\u00adto\u00adlia, over\u00adtak\u00ading the world of hunter-gath\u00ader\u00aders bit by bit. Great care was tak\u00aden to pic\u00adture as lit\u00adtle phys\u00adi\u00adcal move\u00adment of peo\u00adple as pos\u00adsi\u00adble. Each farm\u00ading fam\u00adi\u00adly would sim\u00adply grow, and its chil\u00addren would clear and farm adja\u00adcent land. By a sort of ran\u00addom, brown\u00adian motion, the farmed ter\u00adri\u00adto\u00adry would grad\u00adu\u00adal\u00adly expand. It would not be nec\u00ades\u00adsary for any\u00adone to have moved more than a few kilo\u00adme\u00adters from where they were born. The abo\u00adrig\u00adi\u00adnal pop\u00adu\u00adla\u00adtion of hunter-gath\u00ader\u00aders would be grad\u00adu\u00adal\u00adly dis\u00adplaced, and would have played no sig\u00adnif\u00adi\u00adcant role in this process. Under\u00adly\u00ading this vision are sev\u00ader\u00adal pre\u00adsump\u00adtions, all of them as uncrit\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly accept\u00aded and as dubi\u00adous as the pre\u00adsump\u00adtions that moti\u00advat\u00aded the Kur\u00adgan school. The first is the pre\u00adsump\u00adtion that ancient pop\u00adu\u00adla\u00adtions were essen\u00adtial\u00adly sta\u00adt\u00adic, and that nobody knew or was aware of any\u00adthing or any\u00adone very far from where they lived. The sec\u00adond is that peo\u00adple rarely trav\u00adeled any great dis\u00adtances. The third is that there is a neat evo\u00adlu\u00adtion\u00adary pro\u00adgres\u00adsion of soci\u00adeties from \u201csim\u00adple\u201d to \u201ccom\u00adplex\u201d, a pre\u00adsump\u00adtion that has been locked into his\u00adtor\u00adi\u00adcal think\u00ading since the nine\u00adteenth cen\u00adtu\u00adry, with\u00adout any coher\u00adent def\u00adi\u00adn\u00adi\u00adtion of either sim\u00adplic\u00adi\u00adty or com\u00adplex\u00adi\u00adty. Hunter-gath\u00ader\u00ader soci\u00adeties are thought to be inher\u00adent\u00adly \u201csim\u00adple\u201d, hence their effects must be insignif\u00adi\u00adcant, and their dis\u00adplace\u00adment by farm\u00ading soci\u00adeties an inevitable des\u00adtiny. The fourth assump\u00adtion is that trade is an activ\u00adi\u00adty which can only be asso\u00adci\u00adat\u00aded with lat\u00ader or more \u201ccom\u00adplex\u201d soci\u00adeties; con\u00adse\u00adquent\u00adly, any archae\u00ado\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal evi\u00addence of long dis\u00adtance com\u00admerce must be inter\u00adpret\u00aded in such a way as to deny that it is real\u00adly trade. If there are objects found in one part of Europe that obvi\u00adous\u00adly come from anoth\u00ader, dis\u00adtant place, then they must have moved there in a grad\u00adual, uncon\u00adscious, and undi\u00adrect\u00aded process. Trade must have not real\u00adly been trade \u2500 it must have been a kind of cer\u00ade\u00admo\u00adni\u00adal \u201cgift exchange\u201d. Since some exam\u00adples of cer\u00ade\u00admo\u00adni\u00adal gift exchange can be found in every soci\u00adety (for exam\u00adple, any\u00adone who is nice to the Chi\u00adnese Com\u00admu\u00adnist Par\u00adty has a good chance of get\u00adting a pan\u00adda), and since there are some eth\u00adno\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal exam\u00adples of prod\u00aducts drift\u00ading slow\u00adly in gift exchanges from tribe to tribe, in iso\u00adlat\u00aded areas like the Ama\u00adzon and Papua-New Guinea, these are tak\u00aden as the tem\u00adplate. All of these pre\u00adsump\u00adtions, tak\u00aden togeth\u00ader, fit into a world view of peo\u00adple behav\u00ading as uncon\u00adscious automa\u00adtons in an \u201cevo\u00adlu\u00adtion\u00adary\u201d mod\u00adel of neat stages and sta\u00adt\u00adic populations.<\/p>\n My crit\u00adi\u00adcism is based on the fact that we have, in North Amer\u00adi\u00adca, well-doc\u00adu\u00adment\u00aded and under\u00adstood exam\u00adples of peo\u00adple oper\u00adat\u00ading in a world in which neolith\u00adic-style agri\u00adcul\u00adture, hunt\u00ading and gath\u00ader\u00ading, and nomadic war\u00adriors inter\u00adact\u00aded. We know exact\u00adly how trade oper\u00adat\u00aded among these peo\u00adple, and exact\u00adly how goods trav\u00adeled from one place to anoth\u00ader, and have a good pic\u00adture of how pop\u00adu\u00adla\u00adtions moved. We know these things because, in many cas\u00ades, we have unbro\u00adken cul\u00adtur\u00adal tra\u00addi\u00adtions, and cen\u00adturies of eye-wit\u00adness descrip\u00adtions, to go along with the archae\u00ado\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal evi\u00addence. In many cas\u00ades, we can actu\u00adal\u00adly go and talk to peo\u00adple who have prac\u00adticed neolith\u00adic agri\u00adcul\u00adture, were once mount\u00aded war\u00adriors, or who still prac\u00adtice a hunter-gath\u00ader\u00ading life-style. And the pic\u00adture pre\u00adsent\u00aded by all this evi\u00addence is very unlike the pic\u00adture of Euro\u00adpean pre\u00adhis\u00adto\u00adry held by the cur\u00adrent consensus.<\/p>\n Now, nobody can prove that the cus\u00adtoms and economies of North Amer\u00adi\u00adcan Indi\u00adan soci\u00adeties are sim\u00adi\u00adlar to those of Neolith\u00adic Euro\u00adpeans, but it cer\u00adtain\u00adly seems log\u00adi\u00adcal that our knowl\u00adedge of them should inform our choic\u00ades when we make spec\u00adu\u00adla\u00adtive recon\u00adstruc\u00adtions of the latter.<\/p>\n I wrote ear\u00adli\u00ader about the exten\u00adsive mobil\u00adi\u00adty and trade of the tra\u00addi\u00adtion\u00adal cul\u00adture of the Hudson\u2019s Bay region. Now I would like to take a look at a soci\u00adety which offers obvi\u00adous par\u00adal\u00adlels to ear\u00adly farm\u00ading soci\u00adeties in Europe.<\/p>\n Along the Upper Mis\u00adsouri riv\u00ader, in North and South Dako\u00adta, there exist\u00aded, for rough\u00adly a thou\u00adsand years, a string of agri\u00adcul\u00adtur\u00adal vil\u00adlages. The Man\u00addan, Hidat\u00adsa, and Arikara peo\u00adples inhab\u00adit\u00aded the area, which was a fer\u00adtile riv\u00ader val\u00adley cross\u00ading the open prairies. The sur\u00adround\u00ading prairies were inhab\u00adit\u00aded by nomadic, non-agri\u00adcul\u00adtur\u00adal tribes. Archae\u00ado\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal evi\u00addence sug\u00adgests that the Man\u00addans estab\u00adlished them\u00adselves there some\u00adtime before the ninth cen\u00adtu\u00adry AD<\/span>, and had migrat\u00aded west\u00adwards from pre\u00advi\u00adous cen\u00adters in Iowa and Min\u00adneso\u00adta, and that they are his\u00adtor\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly con\u00adnect\u00aded with agri\u00adcul\u00adtur\u00adal pop\u00adu\u00adla\u00adtions fur\u00adther east. The Man\u00addan were lat\u00ader joined by lin\u00adguis\u00adti\u00adcal\u00adly relat\u00aded Hidat\u00adsa peo\u00adple, and the two groups have influ\u00adenced each oth\u00aders\u2019 mate\u00adr\u00adi\u00adal cul\u00adtures in such a way as to make it dif\u00adfi\u00adcult to untan\u00adgle them, though they remained polit\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly inde\u00adpen\u00addent from each oth\u00ader. The Man\u00addan have explic\u00adit tra\u00addi\u00adtions of teach\u00ading the Hidat\u00adsa how to farm, and the Hidat\u00adsa tra\u00addi\u00adtions con\u00adcur with this. Con\u00adverse\u00adly, the Man\u00addan assert that they were taught how to hunt Buf\u00adfa\u00adlo after they arrived in the Dako\u00adtas. The Ariki\u00adra were an agri\u00adcul\u00adtur\u00adal peo\u00adple with roots in the south\u00adern Mis\u00adsis\u00adsip\u00adpi val\u00adley, who migrat\u00aded north\u00adward along the Mis\u00adsouri until they encoun\u00adtered the Man\u00addan and Hidat\u00adsa. They also came to share many ele\u00adments of their mate\u00adr\u00adi\u00adal cul\u00adture with the oth\u00ader two, and also remained polit\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly inde\u00adpen\u00addent. They belong to an unre\u00adlat\u00aded lin\u00adguis\u00adtic family.<\/p>\n Hidat\u00adsa vil\u00adlage on the Knife Riv\u00ader , George Catlin, 1832<\/p><\/div>\n Man\u00addan Bull-Boats at Matooton\u00adha, Karl Bod\u00admer, 1834<\/p><\/div>\n At the height of their pros\u00adper\u00adi\u00adty, in the late 16th and ear\u00adly 17th cen\u00adturies, these three peo\u00adples num\u00adbered about 25,000 in sub\u00adstan\u00adtial vil\u00adlages, some bet\u00adter described as towns, with sol\u00adid, spa\u00adcious hous\u00ades, cer\u00ade\u00admo\u00adni\u00adal build\u00adings and plazas, pro\u00adtect\u00aded by sub\u00adstan\u00adtial wood\u00aden pal\u00adisades. Though their farm\u00ading was inten\u00adsive, and they pro\u00adduced an agri\u00adcul\u00adtur\u00adal sur\u00adplus, they hunt\u00aded buf\u00adfa\u00adlo and wild game on the adja\u00adcent prairies, and fished for stur\u00adgeon and cat\u00adfish in the riv\u00ader and its branch\u00ades. They also for\u00adaged and hunt\u00aded for a wide vari\u00adety of del\u00adi\u00adca\u00adcies and raw mate\u00adri\u00adals that could be found in the rich riv\u00ader ecosys\u00adtem. They close\u00adly mon\u00adi\u00adtored and man\u00adaged sources of crit\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly essen\u00adtial tim\u00adber. Agri\u00adcul\u00adture, and the con\u00adstruc\u00adtion of hous\u00ades and for\u00adti\u00adfi\u00adca\u00adtions was tra\u00addi\u00adtion\u00adal\u00adly under\u00adtak\u00aden and man\u00adaged by women. War and hunt\u00ading were the prin\u00adci\u00adple province of men, though there was some flu\u00adid\u00adi\u00adty and over\u00adlap in these roles. There were no kings or aris\u00adtoc\u00adra\u00adcy. Each town or vil\u00adlage was self-gov\u00adern\u00ading, through a vari\u00adety of coun\u00adcils. Polit\u00adi\u00adcal pow\u00ader was dif\u00adfused into spe\u00adcial\u00adized offices, with no indi\u00advid\u00adual or fac\u00adtion exer\u00adcis\u00ading pow\u00ader out\u00adside of its spe\u00adcial func\u00adtion. Some clans claimed pre\u00adem\u00adi\u00adnence through inher\u00adit\u00aded \u201csacred bun\u00addles\u201d, which con\u00adferred author\u00adi\u00adty and pres\u00adtige in dis\u00adtinct areas, but oth\u00ader, pow\u00ader\u00adful bun\u00addles could be pur\u00adchased, and indi\u00advid\u00adu\u00adals from low-pres\u00adtige clans could climb to posi\u00adtions of author\u00adi\u00adty. War\u00adfare, more often than not, was divorced from estab\u00adlished priv\u00adi\u00adlege, as young men with\u00adout wealth or influ\u00adence often stirred up trou\u00adble in the hope of gain\u00ading influ\u00adence as war\u00adriors. The matri\u00adlin\u00adeal, exog\u00ada\u00admous Clans, which exer\u00adcised con\u00adsid\u00ader\u00adable social con\u00adtrol, also cared for the old and des\u00adti\u00adtute. They also made lat\u00ader\u00adal loy\u00adal\u00adties between vil\u00adlages, and even between tribes, But young men were edu\u00adcat\u00aded by their fathers\u2019 clans. Age-grade soci\u00adeties cut across clan lines and were entered by pur\u00adchase. These were repos\u00adi\u00adto\u00adries of cer\u00ade\u00admo\u00adni\u00adal tra\u00addi\u00adtions, arts, and tech\u00adni\u00adcal skills. The best descrip\u00adtion of Upper Mis\u00adsouri vil\u00adlage polit\u00adi\u00adcal orga\u00adni\u00adza\u00adtion would be a dif\u00adfuse, mul\u00adti-lay\u00adered con\u00adcil\u00adiar pol\u00adi\u00adtics heav\u00adi\u00adly influ\u00adenced by an unsta\u00adble oli\u00adgarchy. Above the vil\u00adlage lev\u00adel, polit\u00adi\u00adcal alliances some\u00adtimes fol\u00adlowed eth\u00adno-lin\u00adguis\u00adtic lines, and some\u00adtimes did not. The preva\u00adlence of war\u00adfare seri\u00adous enough to mer\u00adit expen\u00adsive for\u00adti\u00adfi\u00adca\u00adtion did not, ipso fac\u00adto, imply that any war\u00adrior aris\u00adtoc\u00adra\u00adcy was in charge, as archae\u00adol\u00ado\u00adgists often pre\u00adsume in an Old World setting.<\/p>\n We have detailed descrip\u00adtions of the first con\u00adtact with Euro\u00adpeans from the jour\u00adnals of the Cana\u00addi\u00adan explor\u00ader La V\u00e9rendrye and his par\u00adty. Since La V\u00e9rendrye was pri\u00admar\u00adi\u00adly inter\u00adest\u00aded in trade, we have a good pic\u00adture of the eco\u00adnom\u00adics of the region from long before any sub\u00adstan\u00adtial inter\u00adac\u00adtions with Euro\u00adpeans. For the next cen\u00adtu\u00adry, only a trick\u00adle of sim\u00adi\u00adlar vis\u00adi\u00adtors arrived, and the only notable Euro\u00adpean influ\u00adence was the incor\u00adpo\u00adra\u00adtion of some Euro\u00adpean prod\u00aducts into their already exten\u00adsive sys\u00adtem of trade.<\/p>\n This sys\u00adtem of trade is what is impor\u00adtant to look at close\u00adly. It long pre\u00addates any Euro\u00adpean influ\u00adence, is entire\u00adly autochto\u00adnous in ori\u00adgin, and was not a man\u00adi\u00adfes\u00adta\u00adtion of cer\u00ade\u00admo\u00adni\u00adal gift exchanges or of acci\u00adden\u00adtal, unplanned, or uncon\u00adscious prac\u00adtices. Farm\u00adland was owned by vil\u00adlage women in indi\u00advid\u00adual plots. The aver\u00adage plot pro\u00adduced a sub\u00adstan\u00adtial sur\u00adplus, and each woman, after feed\u00ading her fam\u00adi\u00adly, processed the crops, chiefly corn and a vari\u00adety of squash\u00ades, into store-able dried forms, and kept them in indi\u00advid\u00adu\u00adal\u00adly owned stor\u00adage caches. The prod\u00aducts of fish\u00ading, hunt\u00ading, and gath\u00ader\u00ading were sim\u00adi\u00adlar\u00adly processed to make both fresh, and store-able pre\u00adserved jerkies, pem\u00admi\u00adcans, and can\u00addies. The food sur\u00adplus from all these activ\u00adi\u00adties was sub\u00adstan\u00adtial, and there was also a wide range of craft pro\u00adduc\u00adtion, includ\u00ading excel\u00adlent pot\u00adtery, cop\u00adper-ware, bas\u00adketry, fine leathers, farm tools, toys, musi\u00adcal instru\u00adments, domes\u00adtic appli\u00adances, and dec\u00ado\u00adra\u00adtive objects. This, too, was under\u00adtak\u00aden on a scale that con\u00adsid\u00ader\u00adably exceed\u00aded local needs.<\/p>\n This is because the Three Asso\u00adci\u00adat\u00aded Tribes were the region\u2019s pre\u00adem\u00adi\u00adnent mer\u00adchant-traders. It is per\u00adfect\u00adly clear that this trade was not a mere cer\u00ade\u00admo\u00adni\u00adal \u201cgift exchange\u201d net\u00adwork, nor was it based on pres\u00adtige items or trin\u00adkets. What\u00adev\u00ader lux\u00adu\u00adry or pres\u00adtige goods were exchanged, they were mere side-effects of a large-scale trade in mun\u00addane goods, start\u00ading with agri\u00adcul\u00adtur\u00adal sta\u00adples. Accord\u00ading to numer\u00adous first-hand accounts, \u201cvast quan\u00adti\u00adties\u201d of food prod\u00aducts were trad\u00aded. Both food and non-food prod\u00aducts were often man\u00adu\u00adfac\u00adtured from raw mate\u00adri\u00adals pur\u00adchased from oth\u00ader tribes, then resold to third par\u00adties. For exam\u00adple, west\u00adern hunt\u00ading tribes sold hides for dried corn and squash, and the vil\u00adlagers turned them into high-qual\u00adi\u00adty leather goods to sell to tribes in the East. Sales took place at reg\u00adu\u00adlar\u00adly sched\u00aduled trade fairs, orga\u00adnized by the vil\u00adlages, at which indi\u00advid\u00adu\u00adals sold their stocks. Vis\u00adi\u00adtors came from hun\u00addreds of kilo\u00adme\u00adters away to buy and sell at these fairs.<\/p>\n The vil\u00adlages of the Upper Mis\u00adsouri were at the heart of a com\u00adplex net\u00adwork of orga\u00adnized com\u00admerce that encom\u00adpassed two con\u00adcen\u00adtric areas. The first area was one of direct trade. This was the zone were buy\u00aders and sell\u00aders trav\u00adeled to engage in sin\u00adgle exchanges. This zone was approx\u00adi\u00admate\u00adly the size of Eng\u00adland. A larg\u00ader zone sur\u00adround\u00aded this, in which trade goods moved by two or three \u201cjumps\u201d until they reached the Three Asso\u00adci\u00adat\u00aded Tribes. This area was the size of West\u00adern Europe. There is no evi\u00addence that any sub\u00adstan\u00adtial amount of trade goods trav\u00adeled in a crawl\u00ading, incre\u00admen\u00adtal fash\u00adion from one vil\u00adlage or group to anoth\u00ader over short dis\u00adtances. This is illus\u00adtrat\u00aded by the endur\u00ading mer\u00adcan\u00adtile con\u00adnec\u00adtion between the Upper Mis\u00adsouri, and the low\u00ader Colum\u00adbia Riv\u00ader. The Crow peo\u00adple were close\u00adly relat\u00aded to the Hidat\u00adsa. They had accom\u00adpa\u00adnied them in their migra\u00adtion from Min\u00adneso\u00adta, but had not, accord\u00ading to tra\u00addi\u00adtion, adopt\u00aded farm\u00ading. Instead, they ranged the plains to the south\u00adwest, and main\u00adtained a spe\u00adcial rela\u00adtion\u00adship with the Hidat\u00adsa, car\u00adry\u00ading goods back and forth to the renowned Shoshone Ren\u00addezvous, sev\u00aden hun\u00addred kilo\u00adme\u00adters to the south\u00adwest, near present-day Green Riv\u00ader, Wyoming. There, they met Nez Per\u00adc\u00e9, Ute, and Flat\u00adhead traders, who car\u00adried goods to The Dalles, in Ore\u00adgon, anoth\u00ader six hun\u00addred kilo\u00adme\u00adters to the west (1,600 km by riv\u00ader). As the Upper Mis\u00adsouri vil\u00adlages were the great entre\u00adpot<\/em> of the High Plains, The Dalles per\u00adformed the same func\u00adtion in the North\u00adwest, and on a greater scale. Ini\u00adtial\u00adly, its attrac\u00adtion was as the most pro\u00adduc\u00adtive salmon fish\u00adery of the whole Colum\u00adbia basin. Thou\u00adsands gath\u00adered there, in the fish\u00ading sea\u00adson, not just to fish, but to trade. As Eliz\u00ada\u00adbeth Vib\u00adert describes it, in Traders\u2019 Tales:<\/p>\n Cen\u00adturies before Euro\u00adpeans arrived in the region, The Dalles had become the nucle\u00adus of the North\u00adwest Coast-plateau trade sys\u00adtem. It has been argued that in terms of the vari\u00adety of goods trad\u00aded there, the diver\u00adsi\u00adty of cul\u00adtures rep\u00adre\u00adsent\u00aded, and the sheer inten\u00adsi\u00adty and vol\u00adume of trade, the place was pre\u00adem\u00adi\u00adnent among Native Amer\u00adi\u00adcan trade ren\u00addezvous in North Amer\u00adi\u00adca. From the Great Plains came buf\u00adfa\u00adlo robes and oth\u00ader buf\u00adfa\u00adlo prod\u00aducts, feath\u00ader head\u00address\u00ades, parflech\u00ades, and catli\u00adn\u00adite (pipe\u00adstone); from the coast, whale and seal bone and oils and orna\u00admen\u00adtal shells, includ\u00ading the prized hai\u00adqua (den\u00adtal\u00adi\u00adum); from the Great Basin, obsid\u00adi\u00adan and oth\u00ader stone tools; from the Plateau, bas\u00adket\u00adwork, canoes, hemp, and oth\u00ader plant mate\u00adri\u00adals, pelts and hides; and from the Plateau, Great Basin, and Cal\u00adi\u00adfor\u00adnia, food plants like bit\u00adte\u00adroot, camas, and wap\u00ada\u00adtoo. Goods trad\u00aded at The Dalles have been traced to archae\u00ado\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal sites from Alas\u00adka to Cal\u00adi\u00adfor\u00adnia, and a thou\u00adsand miles to the east.<\/p>\n To illus\u00adtrate how things worked, con\u00adsid\u00ader the ele\u00adgant awl cas\u00ades, which most Hidat\u00adsa women car\u00adried on their belts to pro\u00adtect a mun\u00addane, but essen\u00adtial tool. The Hidat\u00adsa craft\u00aded beau\u00adti\u00adful ones, for them\u00adselves, and for sale to oth\u00aders. These were dec\u00ado\u00adrat\u00aded with den\u00adtal\u00adi\u00adum shell, from the Pacif\u00adic coast. We can trace the steps the den\u00adtal\u00adi\u00adum took to reach the Upper Mis\u00adsouri: from the Tillam\u00adook region\u00adal trad\u00ading cen\u00adter at the mouth of the Colum\u00adbia to The Dalles; from there to a sec\u00adondary trad\u00ading cen\u00adter at Snake Riv\u00ader or Camas, in Ida\u00adho; from there to the Shoshone Ren\u00addezvous; from there to the Hidat\u00adsa. The prod\u00aduct, den\u00adtal\u00adi\u00adum, was not by any stretch of the imag\u00adi\u00adna\u00adtion a non-func\u00adtion\u00adal pres\u00adtige arti\u00adfact. It was a good qual\u00adi\u00adty raw mate\u00adr\u00adi\u00adal employed to make a high-qual\u00adi\u00adty, but util\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan object used exclu\u00adsive\u00adly by women. It was used in many oth\u00ader crafts, by many peo\u00adple west of the Mis\u00adsis\u00adsip\u00adpi. The trans\u00adac\u00adtions nec\u00ades\u00adsary involved only four steps, aver\u00adag\u00ading about 700km in dis\u00adtance. An equiv\u00ada\u00adlent trade net\u00adwork in ancient Europe would have stretched from the Black Sea to Britain.<\/p>\n Cer\u00ade\u00admo\u00adni\u00adal gift exchanges per\u00adformed the same role they do in mod\u00adern soci\u00adeties \u2500 they act\u00aded as social lubri\u00adcants facil\u00adi\u00adtat\u00ading more prac\u00adti\u00adcal and exten\u00adsive com\u00admer\u00adcial trans\u00adac\u00adtions, or they marked polit\u00adi\u00adcal nego\u00adti\u00ada\u00adtions. Chiefs giv\u00ading out cer\u00ade\u00admo\u00adni\u00adal gifts had to buy them from pro\u00adduc\u00aders or traders, in the first place, just as a mod\u00adern politi\u00adcian giv\u00ading gifts to a vis\u00adit\u00ading politi\u00adcian has to buy them from the nor\u00admal econ\u00ado\u00admy. Gift exchanges were depen\u00addent on the com\u00admer\u00adcial econ\u00ado\u00admy, so they could not be<\/em> the econ\u00ado\u00admy. Nor\u00admal com\u00admerce was not man\u00adaged by kings or war-lead\u00aders. There were no kings. Trade was planned and direct\u00aded by indi\u00advid\u00adual entre\u00adpre\u00adneurs (often women) and by com\u00admit\u00adtees and coun\u00adcils con\u00advened for the task. Until the advent of the horse, war-lead\u00aders, no mat\u00adter how emi\u00adnent, did not direct trade. They bought its prod\u00aducts, like every\u00adone else. How\u00adev\u00ader, the arrival of hors\u00ades brought to promi\u00adnence a com\u00admod\u00adi\u00adty that could be aug\u00adment\u00aded as eas\u00adi\u00adly by raid\u00ading and theft as by breed\u00ading and trad\u00ading, and were from the begin\u00adning owned by the hunters who dou\u00adbled as war\u00adriors. This pro\u00adduced an impor\u00adtant change in who engaged in trade, and how it was done.<\/p>\n It\u2019s per\u00adfect\u00adly clear that the Three Affil\u00adi\u00adat\u00aded Tribes had a good knowl\u00adedge of large-scale geog\u00adra\u00adphy, knew where prod\u00aducts came from even when they came through inter\u00adme\u00addi\u00adaries, and under\u00adtook both eco\u00adnom\u00adic and polit\u00adi\u00adcal strate\u00adgies to place them\u00adselves advan\u00adta\u00adgeous\u00adly in a con\u00adti\u00adnent-wide sys\u00adtem of trade. La V\u00e9rendrye sought out the vil\u00adlages after hear\u00ading descrip\u00adtions of them from hunt\u00ading peo\u00adples in Cana\u00adda. At the west\u00adern end of Lake Supe\u00adri\u00ador a Cree named Aucha\u00adgah spon\u00adta\u00adneous\u00adly sketched a map for him, on birch bark, that cov\u00adered hun\u00addreds of kilo\u00adme\u00adters. It was no dif\u00adfer\u00adent in con\u00adcep\u00adtion, tech\u00adnique, or assump\u00adtions of sig\u00adnif\u00adi\u00adcance than with any map that a Euro\u00adpean would have spon\u00adta\u00adneous\u00adly sketched under sim\u00adi\u00adlar cir\u00adcum\u00adstances. The Man\u00addans and oth\u00ader plains peo\u00adples made ele\u00adgant maps drawn on cured buf\u00adfa\u00adlo hide that showed riv\u00ader sys\u00adtems in accu\u00adrate detail, of which we have sur\u00adviv\u00ading exam\u00adples. The Man\u00addan coun\u00adcils imme\u00addi\u00adate\u00adly under\u00adtook nego\u00adti\u00ada\u00adtions to estab\u00adlish a direct trade with the Cana\u00addi\u00adans and employed a sub\u00adtle sub\u00adterfuge to pre\u00advent Black\u00adfoot traders from gain\u00ading a foothold as middlemen.<\/p>\n When I look at this kind of large-scale trade net\u00adwork, what strikes me most dra\u00admat\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly is that seden\u00adtary agri\u00adcul\u00adtur\u00adal peo\u00adple, prairie nomads, fish\u00ader\u00admen, and iso\u00adlat\u00aded bands of hunters all par\u00adtic\u00adi\u00adpat\u00aded in the trade net\u00adwork on an equal basis, and trade was of eco\u00adnom\u00adic impor\u00adtance to all of them. Peo\u00adple could not, in fact, be auto\u00admat\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly pegged to a spe\u00adcif\u00adic cat\u00ade\u00adgo\u00adry, and there is no evi\u00addence that par\u00adtic\u00adu\u00adlar modes of pro\u00adduc\u00adtion con\u00adsti\u00adtut\u00aded a fixed evo\u00adlu\u00adtion\u00adary sequence, or dis\u00adtinct \u201clev\u00adels\u201d. Peo\u00adple who lived as mobile hunters in Michi\u00adgan also oper\u00adat\u00aded large-scale cop\u00adper mines that sup\u00adplied cus\u00adtomers as far away as Mex\u00adi\u00adco. Oth\u00ader \u201cnomadic\u201d peo\u00adple set up large per\u00adma\u00adnent fish weirs in order to sell the prod\u00aducts to dis\u00adtant farm\u00ading vil\u00adlages, though thy could eas\u00adi\u00adly have lived com\u00adfort\u00adably off of hunt\u00ading in their area. This did not in any way alter their self-iden\u00adti\u00adfi\u00adca\u00adtion with lin\u00adguis\u00adtic and cul\u00adtur\u00adal rela\u00adtions who did not do this. All these intri\u00adcate vari\u00ada\u00adtions lead me to con\u00adclude that the trade-net\u00adworks long pre\u00addate agri\u00adcul\u00adture, and that agri\u00adcul\u00adtur\u00adal vil\u00adlages expand\u00aded into areas, like the Upper Mis\u00adsouri, already well-known through trade and trav\u00adel. The sites of Man\u00addan vil\u00adlages were select\u00aded, I believe, because they were already known to be pro\u00adduc\u00adtive cen\u00adters of fish\u00ading, har\u00advest\u00ading wild prairie turnips, berry pick\u00ading, and good places to dri\u00adve herds of buf\u00adfa\u00adlo over bluffs. North America\u2019s net\u00adwork of rivers was an effec\u00adtive sys\u00adtem of high\u00adways that could car\u00adry goods and peo\u00adple swift\u00adly over long dis\u00adtances, and this net\u00adwork was as famil\u00adiar to every\u00adone as Eng\u00adlish peo\u00adple are now famil\u00adiar with the M4<\/span> and M6<\/span>. Sig\u00adnif\u00adi\u00adcant gaps between agri\u00adcul\u00adtur\u00adal regions along the Mis\u00adsouri, as well as clear tra\u00addi\u00adtions of migra\u00adtion (the three Tribes each arrived from dif\u00adfer\u00adent direc\u00adtions) demon\u00adstrate that a slow-mov\u00ading \u201cwave-front\u201d of agri\u00adcul\u00adture was not how agri\u00adcul\u00adture spread, at least in this part of the world. All the evi\u00addence points to agri\u00adcul\u00adture being a prac\u00adtice that took advan\u00adtage of an already exten\u00adsive trade and trans\u00adport net\u00adwork to estab\u00adlish itself at strate\u00adgic nodes, which were already sig\u00adnif\u00adi\u00adcant for fish\u00ading, spe\u00adcial\u00adized hunt\u00ading, as pre-agri\u00adcul\u00adtur\u00adal trad\u00ading places, or for the avail\u00adabil\u00adi\u00adty of spe\u00adcial\u00adty prod\u00aducts. The Three Tribes were as much con\u00adcerned with the avail\u00adabil\u00adi\u00adty of suit\u00adable con\u00adstruc\u00adtion tim\u00adber as they were with the fer\u00adtil\u00adi\u00adty of the soil, when they placed or moved their vil\u00adlages, and it is not acci\u00adden\u00adtal that a major move cre\u00adat\u00aded a new vil\u00adlage called Like-a-Fishhook.<\/p>\n The scale, com\u00adplex\u00adi\u00adty, and eco\u00adnom\u00adic impor\u00adtance of long-dis\u00adtance trade net\u00adworks has long been famil\u00adiar stuff among New World archae\u00adol\u00ado\u00adgists, but some\u00adhow, this has had only reluc\u00adtant, and deval\u00adued influ\u00adence on the the\u00ado\u00adret\u00adi\u00adcal frame\u00adwork of Euro\u00adpean pre\u00adhis\u00adto\u00adry. There, old habits that regard com\u00admerce as igno\u00adble, trav\u00adel as unnat\u00adur\u00adal, pre-ordained stages as the essence of his\u00adto\u00adry, and hier\u00adar\u00adchy as the pre\u00adferred order\u00ading prin\u00adci\u00adple of soci\u00adety still shape atti\u00adtudes toward the past. Such ideas, of course, influ\u00adence New World archae\u00adol\u00ado\u00adgists and his\u00adto\u00adri\u00adans as well, but appar\u00adent\u00adly not quite so rigidly.<\/p>\n So, what do these exam\u00adples from North Amer\u00adi\u00adca, where we have some secure knowl\u00adedge of social sys\u00adtems and economies, have to say to us when we con\u00adtem\u00adplate Neolith\u00adic Europe, where we have none? They can tell us noth\u00ading for cer\u00adtain, but they can give us a good idea of what was pos\u00adsi\u00adble, and even what was most likely.<\/p>\n I also sus\u00adpect that the pre-emi\u00adnence of Indo-Euro\u00adpean dialects as trad\u00ading lan\u00adguages may have played as much a role in their spread as agri\u00adcul\u00adture, and would account for the rel\u00ada\u00adtive\u00adly mod\u00adest degree of diver\u00adgence they dis\u00adplay. If Indo-Euro\u00adpean speak\u00ading farm\u00aders had been as immo\u00adbile as cur\u00adrent the\u00ado\u00adry sug\u00adgests, then after five thou\u00adsand years of pres\u00adence in Europe, there should have been con\u00adsid\u00ader\u00adably more diver\u00adgence than there is. By 1000 BC<\/span>, the speech of peas\u00adant com\u00admu\u00adni\u00adties should have been mutu\u00adal\u00adly unin\u00adtel\u00adli\u00adgi\u00adble every fifty kilo\u00adme\u00adters from each oth\u00ader, the kind of sit\u00adu\u00ada\u00adtion you have in New Guinea. But if Indo-Euro\u00adpean dialects had become lin\u00adgua-fran\u00adca along well-fre\u00adquent\u00aded trade routes, then their actu\u00adal degree of diver\u00adgence makes sense.<\/p>\n![\"08-03-07](\"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2008\/03\/08-03-07-BLOG-Friday-March-7-2008-I-Called-the-New-World-to-Redress-the-Balance-of-the-Old-2.jpg\")
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<\/a>What seems most like\u00adly to me is that agri\u00adcul\u00adture spread through Europe by plug\u00adging itself into an already-exist\u00ading net\u00adwork of trade and trav\u00adel. It would have involved indi\u00advid\u00adu\u00adals and small tribes, or clans, mov\u00ading sig\u00adnif\u00adi\u00adcant dis\u00adtances, usu\u00adal\u00adly along rivers, but occa\u00adsion\u00adal\u00adly jump\u00ading from one riv\u00ader sys\u00adtem to anoth\u00ader. Agri\u00adcul\u00adtur\u00adal vil\u00adlages would have appeared at loca\u00adtions already eco\u00adnom\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly sig\u00adnif\u00adi\u00adcant as fish\u00ading &<\/span> gath\u00ader\u00ading set\u00adtle\u00adments, or strate\u00adgic trad\u00ading places. Agri\u00adcul\u00adture would not have expand\u00aded as a self-con\u00adtained sub\u00adsis\u00adtence strat\u00ade\u00adgy, but as part of a wide\u00adspread \u201cmar\u00adket sys\u00adtem\u201d, pro\u00adduc\u00ading goods for exchange in a pat\u00adtern that already exist\u00aded for fish and game prod\u00aducts, and for com\u00admodi\u00adties such as furs, amber, and flint, and man\u00adu\u00adfac\u00adtured goods such as axes and knives. It would not have advanced in a \u201cwave-front\u201d, by the process of slow\u00adly adding farms to tbe edges of a uni\u00adform block of agrar\u00adi\u00adan cul\u00adture, as envi\u00adsioned by Ren\u00adfrew, but by inten\u00adsi\u00adfy\u00ading nodal points in a web-like net\u00adwork that pre\u00addat\u00aded the tech\u00adnol\u00ado\u00adgy. Rivers, not land, would have been the crit\u00adi\u00adcal fac\u00adtor, and fish\u00ader\u00admen and fish\u00ading set\u00adtle\u00adments along these rivers would have played a sig\u00adnif\u00adi\u00adcant role. Notice that, in the North Amer\u00adi\u00adcan par\u00adal\u00adlel I con\u00adtem\u00adplate, the largest trad\u00ading empo\u00adri\u00adum, The Dalles, was first and fore\u00admost a fish\u00ading cen\u00adter, from which trade radi\u00adat\u00aded via a net\u00adwork of rivers. In this region, sophis\u00adti\u00adcat\u00aded trade net\u00adworks clear\u00adly pre\u00adced\u00aded agri\u00adcul\u00adture, because it was still not agri\u00adcul\u00adtur\u00adal at the time of Euro\u00adpean con\u00adtact. Fur\u00adther north, along the British Colum\u00adbia coast, vil\u00adlages exist\u00aded with elab\u00ado\u00adrate\u00adly ranked aris\u00adtoc\u00adra\u00adcies, com\u00admon\u00aders, and slaves, but with\u00adout agri\u00adcul\u00adture, con\u00adtra\u00addict\u00ading neat schemes of cul\u00adtur\u00adal evo\u00adlu\u00adtion. Plateau peo\u00adples, just as pro\u00adduc\u00adtive and indus\u00adtri\u00adous, were even more egal\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan than the peo\u00adple of the plains. Their domes\u00adtic and com\u00admer\u00adcial man\u00adage\u00adment of fish\u00aderies, more than 350 species of plants, and dozens of kinds of hunt\u00ading, in a social frame\u00adwork where most peo\u00adple were mul\u00adti-lin\u00adgual, loy\u00adal to mul\u00adti\u00adple groups and local\u00adi\u00adties, and put togeth\u00ader co-oper\u00ada\u00adtive enter\u00adpris\u00ades involv\u00ading hun\u00addreds of peo\u00adple at a time, can hard\u00adly be called \u201csim\u00adple\u201d with a straight face. Their econ\u00ado\u00admy was as com\u00adplex as any farm\u00ading soci\u00adety\u2019s. Most notions of \u201csim\u00adplic\u00adi\u00adty\u201d and \u201ccom\u00adplex\u00adi\u00adty\u201d, and of \u201ccul\u00adtur\u00adal evo\u00adlu\u00adtion\u201d are dubi\u00adous in the extreme, reflect\u00ading uncon\u00adscious prej\u00adu\u00addices and a lack of curios\u00adi\u00adty about how peo\u00adple do things if they aren\u2019t famil\u00adiar to one\u2019s own experience.<\/p>\n
![\"08-03-07](\"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2008\/03\/08-03-07-BLOG-Friday-March-7-2008-I-Called-the-New-World-to-Redress-the-Balance-of-the-Old-4-300x208.jpg\")
<\/a>With\u00adin this frame\u00adwork, it is much eas\u00adi\u00ader to under\u00adstand the com\u00adplex pre-agri\u00adcul\u00adtur\u00adal set\u00adtle\u00adments like the one recent\u00adly stud\u00adied at Argus Bank, in Den\u00admark, where inshore fish\u00ading with weirs, deep-sea fish\u00ading in boats, riv\u00ader fish\u00ading, and hunt\u00ading sup\u00adport\u00aded a sub\u00adstan\u00adtial pop\u00adu\u00adla\u00adtion. Ear\u00adly farm\u00aders would have been attract\u00aded to such places, because they pro\u00advid\u00aded a sol\u00advent mar\u00adket for sur\u00adplus agri\u00adcul\u00adtur\u00adal prod\u00aducts, and a wide range of use\u00adful non-agri\u00adcul\u00adtur\u00adal prod\u00aducts to buy with that sur\u00adplus, just as the Man\u00addan and Hidat\u00adsa grew corn and squash where it could be trad\u00aded for the prod\u00aducts of the prairie. It is this kind of dynam\u00adic syn\u00ader\u00adgy that would cre\u00adate an expan\u00adsion of pop\u00adu\u00adla\u00adtion and vil\u00adlage life, not self-con\u00adtained sub\u00adsis\u00adtence farm\u00ading. It is already under\u00adstood that nomadic pas\u00adtoral\u00adism evolved in sym\u00adbio\u00adsis with set\u00adtled agri\u00adcul\u00adture, and could not have exist\u00aded with\u00adout an agri\u00adcul\u00adtur\u00adal base. I think that we will see that agri\u00adcul\u00adture devel\u00adoped and expand\u00aded in sym\u00adbio\u00adsis with fish\u00ading and hunt\u00ading, in a sim\u00adi\u00adlar way.<\/p>\n