{"id":1504,"date":"2007-08-18T02:10:15","date_gmt":"2007-08-18T06:10:15","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/s265039441.onlinehome.us\/philpaine\/?p=1504"},"modified":"2018-08-16T21:26:32","modified_gmt":"2018-08-17T01:26:32","slug":"third-meditation-on-democracy-written-saturday-august-18-2007","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/?p=1504","title":{"rendered":"THIRD<\/span> MEDITATION<\/span> ON<\/span> DEMOCRACY<\/span> (written Saturday, August 18, 2007)"},"content":{"rendered":"

West\u00adern Europe, and lands cul\u00adtur\u00adal\u00adly derived from it, have made some rel\u00ada\u00adtive\u00adly suc\u00adcess\u00adful approx\u00adi\u00adma\u00adtions of democ\u00adra\u00adcy and civ\u00adil soci\u00adety, and com\u00adbined them with notice\u00adable pros\u00adper\u00adi\u00adty. Peo\u00adple both inside and out\u00adside this favoured zone won\u00adder why, and they have often sought the answer in two par\u00adtic\u00adu\u00adlar areas: reli\u00adgious tra\u00addi\u00adtions, and the dra\u00admat\u00adic intel\u00adlec\u00adtu\u00adal era called \u201cthe Enlight\u00aden\u00adment\u201d. As some\u00adone who has writ\u00adten about the uni\u00adver\u00adsal aspects of democ\u00adra\u00adcy, I\u2019ve often felt some annoy\u00adance at what I con\u00adsid\u00ader parochial views of his\u00adto\u00adry, and dubi\u00adous ideas of causal\u00adi\u00adty. I feel great sym\u00adpa\u00adthy for peo\u00adple out\u00adside the favoured zone, who are hope\u00adful that they can have a demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic future, but are dis\u00adcom\u00adfit\u00aded by the \u201csec\u00adond-banana\u201d sta\u00adtus that it seems to imply for their cul\u00adtur\u00adal her\u00aditage. This is espe\u00adcial\u00adly true in the Islam\u00adic world, where past cul\u00adtur\u00adal glo\u00adries and present embar\u00adrass\u00adments com\u00adbine to make the search for demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic reform a touchy sub\u00adject. I think that an exces\u00adsive\u00adly car\u00adtoon\u00adish view of the Enlight\u00aden\u00adment, and of the rela\u00adtion\u00adship between reli\u00adgion and democ\u00adra\u00adcy, is part of the problem.<\/span><\/p>\n

I recent\u00adly read two arti\u00adcles by Tas\u00adsaduq Hus\u00adsain Jil\u00adlani, a supreme court jus\u00adtice in Pak\u00adistan. Though Pak\u00adistan has mil\u00adlen\u00adnia of cul\u00adtur\u00adal achieve\u00adment \u2014 it was one of the ear\u00adli\u00adest cen\u00adters of urban civ\u00adi\u00adliza\u00adtion \u2014 and it has a well edu\u00adcat\u00aded pop\u00adu\u00adla\u00adtion, it lan\u00adguish\u00ades under a crude mil\u00adi\u00adtary dic\u00adta\u00adtor\u00adship. It has expe\u00adri\u00adenced much strife from con\u00adflict\u00ading reli\u00adgious fac\u00adtions. While its econ\u00ado\u00admy is a sham\u00adbles, the mil\u00adi\u00adtary thugs who run the place take pride in their pos\u00adses\u00adsion of nuclear weapons.<\/span><\/p>\n

Mr. Jil\u00adlani makes no spe\u00adcif\u00adic ref\u00ader\u00adence to cur\u00adrent events in Pak\u00adistan, but it\u2019s obvi\u00adous from the con\u00adtent of his arti\u00adcles that he belongs among the small num\u00adber of peo\u00adple in Pak\u00adistan who hold posi\u00adtions of respon\u00adsi\u00adbil\u00adi\u00adty and influ\u00adence, but are not cor\u00adrupt, and who would like to see the best future for their coun\u00adtry. Such peo\u00adple don\u2019t wield real pow\u00ader, but they can\u2019t be eas\u00adi\u00adly dis\u00adposed of, and they com\u00admand pub\u00adlic respect. There are peo\u00adple like this every\u00adwhere in the world, strug\u00adgling to encour\u00adage a civ\u00adil soci\u00adety under dif\u00adfi\u00adcult circumstances.<\/span><\/p>\n

To this end, Judge Jil\u00adlani has attempt\u00aded to demon\u00adstrate that democ\u00adra\u00adcy is com\u00adpat\u00adi\u00adble with his Islam\u00adic faith. In one arti\u00adcle [1] he argues that the Islam\u00adic world actu\u00adal\u00adly began with some sig\u00adnif\u00adi\u00adcant advan\u00adtages for devel\u00adop\u00ading demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic ideas.<\/span><\/p>\n

Euro\u00adpean thinkers had to over\u00adcome a series of obsta\u00adcles, many reli\u00adgious in ori\u00adgin, or at least pre\u00adsent\u00aded in reli\u00adgious lan\u00adguage, before they could \u201cput across\u201d any ideas of rep\u00adre\u00adsen\u00adta\u00adtive and elect\u00aded gov\u00adern\u00adment, human rights, and equal\u00adi\u00adty. Even the idea of using rea\u00adson to solve prob\u00adlems had to con\u00adtend with pow\u00ader\u00adful notions of rev\u00ade\u00adla\u00adtion and mir\u00ada\u00adcles. Islam, on the oth\u00ader hand, devel\u00adoped a strong and influ\u00aden\u00adtial tra\u00addi\u00adtion of ratio\u00adnal\u00adism (Ijte\u00adhad<\/em>) in its ear\u00adli\u00adest phases.<\/span><\/p>\n

Chris\u00adt\u00adian church\u00ades, whether Catholic, Protes\u00adtant, or Ortho\u00addox, were mod\u00adeled on author\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan polit\u00adi\u00adcal struc\u00adtures, and endorsed them in real life. The Enlight\u00aden\u00adment took place with\u00adin the con\u00adtext of an explic\u00adit state ide\u00adol\u00ado\u00adgy of \u201cthe Divine Right of Kings.\u201d Jil\u00adlani points out that this par\u00adtic\u00adu\u00adlar idea had no real equiv\u00ada\u00adlent in the Islam\u00adic world. Cer\u00adtain\u00adly, none of the large Islam\u00adic states were able to call upon any direct divine sanc\u00adtion for auto\u00adcrat\u00adic rule. This put the Islam\u00adic world, at least the\u00ado\u00adret\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly, in a bet\u00adter posi\u00adtion to devel\u00adop polit\u00adi\u00adcal democ\u00adra\u00adcy than West\u00adern Europe.<\/span><\/p>\n

The Quran con\u00adcerns itself pri\u00admar\u00adi\u00adly with pro\u00advid\u00ading a pro\u00adgram for the indi\u00advid\u00adual to live a just and pious life, and pro\u00advides no polit\u00adi\u00adcal pro\u00adgram beyond admon\u00adish\u00ading the faith\u00adful to cre\u00adate a soci\u00adety where the poor and vul\u00adner\u00ada\u00adble are pro\u00adtect\u00aded, and all are treat\u00aded with respect. As he points out, despite the cur\u00adrent pub\u00adlic obses\u00adsion with \u201cIslam\u00adic states\u201d, the Quran has few vers\u00ades that deal with legal ques\u00adtions, or the state.<\/span><\/p>\n

I would add that those few vers\u00ades are not sys\u00adtem\u00adat\u00adic, and that it\u2019s their very spar\u00adsi\u00adty which has enabled so many con\u00adflict\u00ading and con\u00advo\u00adlut\u00aded schools of Sharia<\/em> to flourish.<\/span><\/p>\n

Jil\u00adlani points out that sev\u00ader\u00adal key con\u00adcepts in Islam\u00adic phi\u00adlos\u00ado\u00adphy can eas\u00adi\u00adly be inter\u00adpret\u00aded as sup\u00adport\u00adive of democ\u00adra\u00adcy, includ\u00ading: Tauheed<\/em>, which denies arbi\u00adtrary author\u00adi\u00adty in the exer\u00adcise of pow\u00ader; the Prophet\u2019s advo\u00adca\u00adcy of con\u00adsul\u00adta\u00adtion as the pri\u00adma\u00adry mode of deci\u00adsion-mak\u00ading; Ijma<\/em>, usu\u00adal\u00adly trans\u00adlat\u00aded as \u201ccon\u00adsen\u00adsus\u201d, which has been inter\u00adpret\u00aded by some Islam\u00adic schol\u00adars as \u201cthe per\u00adfect jus\u00adti\u00adfi\u00adca\u00adtion or prece\u00addent in Islam for elec\u00adtive democ\u00adra\u00adcy\u201d [2]; and Ijte\u00adhad<\/em> (\u201cstriv\u00ading\u201d), which urges that pub\u00adlic issues be decid\u00aded by log\u00adi\u00adcal rea\u00adson\u00ading and informed judgment.<\/span><\/p>\n

These con\u00adcepts cer\u00adtain\u00adly pro\u00advide a more than ade\u00adquate foun\u00adda\u00adtion for build\u00ading demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic insti\u00adtu\u00adtions. They are clear\u00ader and more explic\u00adit than any\u00adthing in Chris\u00adt\u00adian scrip\u00adture and theology.<\/span><\/p>\n

Jil\u00adlani goes through the tra\u00addi\u00adtion\u00adal names asso\u00adci\u00adat\u00aded with the Enlight\u00aden\u00adment, see\u00ading them as the orig\u00adi\u00adna\u00adtors of demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic thought, with a bow to the pow\u00ader and influ\u00adence of the print\u00ading press, not\u00ading that the Ottomans sup\u00adpressed the print\u00ading press, effec\u00adtive\u00adly keep\u00ading it out of the hands of most of the world\u2019s Mus\u00adlims. He assumes that the Enlight\u00aden\u00adment, and the demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic ideas that he asso\u00adciates with that peri\u00adod, remained a Euro\u00adpean dis\u00adcus\u00adsion among Euro\u00adpeans. He sim\u00adply sees it as iron\u00adic that it took place in a soci\u00adety whose reli\u00adgious basis was less fer\u00adtile to it than Islam, at least in abstract theology.<\/span><\/p>\n

He next out\u00adlines, as many oth\u00aders have, the his\u00adto\u00adry of plu\u00adral\u00adism and tol\u00ader\u00adance in Islam\u00adic soci\u00adeties [3]. This would eas\u00adi\u00adly come to mind for some\u00adone who lives, as he does, sur\u00adround\u00aded by the mon\u00adu\u00adments of the Mughal court, which presided tol\u00ader\u00adant\u00adly over a mul\u00adti-eth\u00adnic and mul\u00adti-reli\u00adgious population.<\/span><\/p>\n

Final\u00adly, he comes to the con\u00adclu\u00adsion that the despo\u00adtism, vio\u00adlence and intol\u00ader\u00adance that char\u00adac\u00adter\u00adize so much of the Islam\u00adic world today have very lit\u00adtle to do with reli\u00adgion. The decline of mid\u00addle east\u00adern states, such as the Ottoman empire, can be more eas\u00adi\u00adly explained by more straight\u00adfor\u00adward eco\u00adnom\u00adic and polit\u00adi\u00adcal process\u00ades. Islam presents no sig\u00adnif\u00adi\u00adcant doc\u00adtri\u00adnal bar\u00adri\u00ader to devel\u00adop\u00ading democ\u00adra\u00adcy, and it would behoove Mus\u00adlims every\u00adwhere to encour\u00adage that process, if only to more com\u00adplete\u00adly and secure\u00adly prac\u00adtice their faith.<\/span><\/p>\n

Jil\u00adlani describes his mus\u00ading as an \u201codyssey\u201d, and the metaphor is apt. After vis\u00adit\u00ading strange and dis\u00adtant lands, one can return to Itha\u00adca and turn the par\u00ada\u00adsitic suit\u00adors out. The Pak\u00adistani poet Moham\u00admad Iqbal, wrote:<\/span><\/p>\n

Among the stars there are still oth\u00ader worlds
Oth\u00ader fields to test the human heart.
Filled with life, these open spaces are,
And to them many car\u00ada\u00advans depart<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n

[Bal-e-Jib\u00adril<\/em>. This is my own \u201cpoet\u00adis\u00ading\u201d of the verse from a lit\u00ader\u00adal prose translation]<\/span><\/p>\n

Iqbal him\u00adself was a man of broad and cos\u00admopoli\u00adtan expe\u00adri\u00adence, also a lawyer, and demo\u00adc\u00adrat, and no doubt Jil\u00adlani feels a sense of con\u00adti\u00adnu\u00adity with this man from an ear\u00adli\u00ader gen\u00ader\u00ada\u00adtion. He quotes him in his arti\u00adcle. There is noth\u00ading new about these issues for a Pakistani.<\/span><\/p>\n

Nev\u00ader\u00adthe\u00adless, I feel that some aspects of the dis\u00adcus\u00adsion need a fresh look. There are sev\u00ader\u00adal assump\u00adtions here that need to be questioned.<\/span><\/p>\n

The first assump\u00adtion is one that comes nat\u00adu\u00adral\u00adly to any\u00adone who\u2019s been giv\u00aden a course in Euro\u00adpean his\u00adto\u00adry, where a stan\u00addard\u00adized \u201ccon\u00adnect-the-dots\u201d sto\u00adry of the devel\u00adop\u00adment of democ\u00adra\u00adcy focus\u00ades on the Enlight\u00aden\u00adment, reduced con\u00adve\u00adnient\u00adly to a hand\u00adful of authors (Descartes, Locke, Hume, Voltaire, Rousseau). This is the con\u00adven\u00adtion\u00adal view that demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic ideas were cre\u00adat\u00aded \u201cfrom above\u201d, that they were the prod\u00aduct of a small num\u00adber of polit\u00adi\u00adcal actors inspired by the intel\u00adlec\u00adtu\u00adal works of Enlight\u00aden\u00adment philoso\u00adphers. But the sto\u00adry is just that \u2014 a sto\u00adry. It bears as much resem\u00adblance to what hap\u00adpened as the bib\u00adli\u00adcal cre\u00adation tale does to the process\u00ades of plate tech\u00adton\u00adics and bio\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal evolution.<\/span><\/p>\n

Demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic ideas and demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic prac\u00adtices have a long his\u00adto\u00adry, much longer than the scholas\u00adtic time-line that sees them emerg\u00ading from the Enlight\u00aden\u00adment, and longer even than the the one that asso\u00adciates them with ancient Greece.<\/span><\/p>\n

No Enlight\u00aden\u00adment fig\u00adure used the term \u201cdemoc\u00adra\u00adcy\u201d in a pos\u00adi\u00adtive sense, or used the term to describe their polit\u00adi\u00adcal ideals. The word only began to acquire its pos\u00adi\u00adtive con\u00adno\u00adta\u00adtions in the 19th Cen\u00adtu\u00adry. We have ret\u00adro\u00adspec\u00adtive\u00adly asso\u00adci\u00adat\u00aded the word with these philoso\u00adphers, because we feel that their quest for a ratio\u00adnal world-view, their oppo\u00adsi\u00adtion to tyran\u00adny, and their ten\u00adden\u00adcy to sup\u00adport more inclu\u00adsive and rep\u00adre\u00adsen\u00adta\u00adtive solu\u00adtions to polit\u00adi\u00adcal prob\u00adlems ulti\u00admate\u00adly facil\u00adi\u00adtat\u00aded the cre\u00adation of mod\u00adern demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic institutions.<\/span><\/p>\n

How\u00adev\u00ader, the inclu\u00adsive and rep\u00adre\u00adsen\u00adta\u00adtive insti\u00adtu\u00adtions, and the demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic tech\u00adniques that make them work, were not their pri\u00adma\u00adry con\u00adcern, and were cer\u00adtain\u00adly not their inven\u00adtion. New Eng\u00adland vil\u00adlagers had more prac\u00adti\u00adcal expe\u00adri\u00adence of demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic tech\u00adnique a cen\u00adtu\u00adry before the Amer\u00adi\u00adcan Rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion, than most of the philosophes<\/em> would have approved. So did the mem\u00adbers of many Indi\u00adan coun\u00adcils, or, for that mat\u00adter, the par\u00adtic\u00adi\u00adpants in Bud\u00addhist san\u00adgas<\/em>.<\/span><\/p>\n

For the most part, the Enlight\u00aden\u00adment thinkers them\u00adselves did not believe that they were orig\u00adi\u00adnat\u00ading a nov\u00adel sys\u00adtem of gov\u00adern\u00adment Some thought that they were reviv\u00ading the insti\u00adtu\u00adtions of an ear\u00adli\u00ader time, of the Clas\u00adsi\u00adcal ages they admired, or of a \u201cprelap\u00adsar\u00adi\u00adan\u201d state (pre\u00advail\u00ading in the gar\u00adden of Eden, before the fall of Adam and Eve from grace), or still exist\u00ading in the Far East, or per\u00adhaps among the natives of the New World. Even when more accu\u00adrate knowl\u00adedge pre\u00adclud\u00aded some of these fan\u00adcies, the ancient ori\u00adgins of rep\u00adre\u00adsen\u00adta\u00adtive insti\u00adtu\u00adtions remained appar\u00adent to them. Thomas Jef\u00adfer\u00adson believed, for exam\u00adple, that every key ele\u00adment of a praise\u00adwor\u00adthy repub\u00adlic as he con\u00adceived it, had exist\u00aded among the ancient Anglo-Sax\u00adon tribes. His famil\u00adiar\u00adi\u00adty with trib\u00adal coun\u00adcils among the native peo\u00adple of Amer\u00adi\u00adca pre\u00adsent\u00aded itself as a con\u00adfirm\u00ading parallel.<\/span><\/p>\n

Thinkers like Jef\u00adfer\u00adson were not na\u00efve in their analy\u00adsis of the ori\u00adgins of their own ideas. When the sage of Mon\u00adti\u00adcel\u00adlo attrib\u00aduted his con\u00adcep\u00adtion of an hon\u00adourable poli\u00adty to the Anglo-Sax\u00adon tribes, he was speak\u00ading from a cer\u00adtain amount of author\u00adi\u00adty. Jef\u00adfer\u00adson was one of the few peo\u00adple alive at the time who could actu\u00adal\u00adly read the old Anglo-Sax\u00adon lan\u00adguage, and was famil\u00adiar with its sur\u00adviv\u00ading lit\u00ader\u00ada\u00adture. In the 18th cen\u00adtu\u00adry, a fair amount was known about Anglo-Sax\u00adon his\u00adto\u00adry, the analy\u00adsis of his\u00adtor\u00adi\u00adcal doc\u00adu\u00adments and philol\u00ado\u00adgy was fair\u00adly sophis\u00adti\u00adcat\u00aded, and Jef\u00adfer\u00adson had read prodi\u00adgious\u00adly from many sources. To an edu\u00adcat\u00aded per\u00adson of today, vil\u00adlage coun\u00adcils and small scale self-gov\u00adern\u00adment do not loom large. But to an Eigh\u00adteenth cen\u00adtu\u00adry savant, the inter\u00adcon\u00adnect\u00aded\u00adness, cross-cul\u00adtur\u00adal valid\u00adi\u00adty, and his\u00adtor\u00adi\u00adcal con\u00adti\u00adnu\u00adity of all such local insti\u00adtu\u00adtions was plain\u00adly evi\u00addent. A man like Jef\u00adfer\u00adson, Franklin, or Thomas Paine (raised in a self-gov\u00adern\u00ading Quak\u00ader con\u00adgre\u00adga\u00adtion in a self-gov\u00adern\u00ading East Anglian vil\u00adlage), could see ordi\u00adnary men and women gov\u00adern\u00ading them\u00adselves, using the most sophis\u00adti\u00adcat\u00aded intel\u00adlec\u00adtu\u00adal tools for that pur\u00adpose. They had no dif\u00adfi\u00adcul\u00adty rec\u00adog\u00adniz\u00ading the same ele\u00adments in the coun\u00adcils of the Delaware, Seneca and Mohawk. They could rec\u00adog\u00adnize them with equal facil\u00adi\u00adty in what they knew of the ancient republics or the trib\u00adal insti\u00adtu\u00adtions of their most dis\u00adtant ances\u00adtors. For this rea\u00adson, it was easy for them to see the pre\u00adten\u00adsions and priv\u00adi\u00adleges of aris\u00adtoc\u00adra\u00adcy as a mere par\u00ada\u00adsitic infec\u00adtion, crude\u00adly super\u00adim\u00adposed on some\u00adthing which they felt to be a sol\u00adid bedrock of human practice.<\/span><\/p>\n

The idea of the \u201cdivine right of kings\u201d was more of an ide\u00ado\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal posi\u00adtion con\u00adtrived by kings and their lieu\u00adtenants, than it ever was a com\u00adpo\u00adnent of Chris\u00adt\u00adian the\u00adol\u00ado\u00adgy, and it faced more hos\u00adtil\u00adi\u00adty from church\u00ades than alle\u00adgiance. But it def\u00adi\u00adnite\u00adly was some\u00adthing that Enlight\u00aden\u00adment thinkers felt they had to dis\u00adcred\u00adit and over\u00adcome. In this, they prob\u00ada\u00adbly did\u00adn\u2019t depart much from the com\u00admon sen\u00adti\u00adment. There is lit\u00adtle evi\u00addence that ide\u00adolo\u00adgies of divine right, or of a nat\u00adur\u00adal aris\u00adto\u00adcrat\u00adic order, or of God\u2019s sanc\u00adtion\u00ading injus\u00adtice, were tak\u00aden seri\u00adous\u00adly by any\u00adone but the aris\u00adtoc\u00adra\u00adcies them\u00adselves. Huge mass\u00ades of mono\u00adlith\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly unde\u00admo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic lit\u00ader\u00ada\u00adture, sur\u00adviv\u00ading over cen\u00adturies, might con\u00advey the impres\u00adsion that egal\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan thought did not exist before the Enlight\u00aden\u00adment intro\u00adduced it. But when the bulk of the peo\u00adple are illit\u00ader\u00adate, or not in a posi\u00adtion to write things that will be pre\u00adserved, and those who can write are like\u00adly to ben\u00ade\u00adfit from inequal\u00adi\u00adty, you can\u2019t expect such lit\u00ader\u00ada\u00adture to con\u00advey any\u00adthing else. On the rare occa\u00adsions when we are able to get some glint of the polit\u00adi\u00adcal ideas of peas\u00adants, shep\u00adherds and fish\u00ader\u00admen from any pre-mod\u00adern peri\u00adod, schol\u00adars are usu\u00adal\u00adly aston\u00adished to dis\u00adcov\u00ader that sup\u00adpos\u00aded\u00adly uni\u00adver\u00adsal\u00adly accept\u00aded notions of rank and author\u00adi\u00adty were, in fact, regard\u00aded with con\u00adtempt. In many cas\u00ades, we find folk of hum\u00adble sta\u00adtion pos\u00adsess\u00ading a sophis\u00adti\u00adcat\u00aded grasp of the issues of jus\u00adtice, rep\u00adre\u00adsen\u00adta\u00adtion, legal\u00adi\u00adty, priv\u00adi\u00adlege, and right that were rel\u00ade\u00advant to their sit\u00adu\u00ada\u00adtion. This is not sur\u00adpris\u00ading, because this knowl\u00adedge is the key to sur\u00advival in com\u00admu\u00adni\u00adties that have no way of phys\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly resist\u00ading the pre\u00adda\u00adtions of a well-armed, vio\u00adlent, and rapa\u00adcious aris\u00adtoc\u00adra\u00adcy. In the chaos of peas\u00adant rebel\u00adlions, irra\u00adtional pan\u00adics and hopes in super\u00adnat\u00adur\u00adal sal\u00adva\u00adtion often over\u00adtook more rea\u00adsoned tac\u00adtics. But more often, the strug\u00adgle con\u00adsist\u00aded of a cau\u00adtious and log\u00adi\u00adcal attempt to maneu\u00adver one\u2019s extend\u00aded fam\u00adi\u00adly, clan, or vil\u00adlage into some less exploit\u00aded posi\u00adtion. The bulk of the world\u2019s human beings have been in this sit\u00adu\u00ada\u00adtion. To sur\u00advive at all, they must have had some basic notions of equal\u00adi\u00adty, co-oper\u00ada\u00adtion, jus\u00adtice, and pro\u00adto-demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic techniques.<\/span><\/p>\n

My col\u00adleague, Steven Muhlberg\u00ader, has point\u00aded me to the sur\u00adviv\u00ading lit\u00ader\u00ada\u00adture of the Eng\u00adlish \u201cDig\u00adgers\u201d and \u201cLev\u00adellers\u201d of the mid-sev\u00aden\u00adteenth cen\u00adtu\u00adry. The \u201cDig\u00adgers\u201d were peas\u00adants who unlaw\u00adful\u00adly plant\u00aded crops on their own vil\u00adlage lands, which had been seized and \u201cenclosed\u201d by the gen\u00adtry. Con\u00adsid\u00ader this peti\u00adtion signed by com\u00admon\u00aders in the parish of Wal\u00adton, Sur\u00adrey, in 1649. Their demands make no bones about their rejec\u00adtion of servility:<\/span><\/p>\n

And the Rea\u00adson is this, Every sin\u00adgle man, Male and Female, is a per\u00adfect Crea\u00adture of him\u00adself; and the same Spir\u00adit that made the Globe, dwels in man to gov\u00adern the Globe;so that the flesh of man being sub\u00adject to Rea\u00adson, his Mak\u00ader, hath him to be his Teacher and Ruler with\u00adin him\u00adself, there\u00adfore needs not run abroad after any Teacher and Ruler with\u00adout him, for he needs not that any man should teach him, for the same Anoynt\u00ading that ruled in the Son of man, tea\u00adcheth him all things.<\/em> [4]<\/span><\/p>\n

Per\u00adhaps the most strik\u00ading of Lev\u00adeller doc\u00adu\u00adments is An Arrow Against All Tyrants<\/em>, writ\u00adten by Richard Over\u00adton in 1646. Over\u00adton\u2019s ori\u00adgins are unknown, though it is assumed he had some edu\u00adca\u00adtion. The lan\u00adguage of his many pam\u00adphlets make the more respectable Enlight\u00aden\u00adment fig\u00adures seem rather tame:<\/span><\/p>\n

For every one, as he is him\u00adself, so he has a self-pro\u00adpri\u00adety, else could he not be him\u00adself; and of this no sec\u00adond may pre\u00adsume to deprive any of with\u00adout man\u00adi\u00adfest vio\u00adla\u00adtion and affront to the very prin\u00adci\u00adples of nature and of the rules of equi\u00adty and jus\u00adtice between man and man. Mine and thine can\u00adnot be, except this be. No man has pow\u00ader over my rights and lib\u00ader\u00adties, and I over no man\u2019s. I may be but an indi\u00advid\u00adual, enjoy my self and my self-pro\u00adpri\u00adety and may right myself no more than my self, or pre\u00adsume any fur\u00adther; if I do, I am an encroach\u00ader and an invad\u00ader upon anoth\u00ader man\u2019s right \u2014 to which I have no right. For by nat\u00adur\u00adal birth all men are equal\u00adly and alike born to like pro\u00adpri\u00adety, lib\u00ader\u00adty and free\u00addom; and as we are deliv\u00adered of God by the hand of nature into this world, every one with a nat\u00adur\u00adal, innate free\u00addom and pro\u00adpri\u00adety \u2014 as it were writ in the table of every man\u2019s heart, nev\u00ader to be oblit\u00ader\u00adat\u00aded \u2014 even so are we to live, every\u00adone equal\u00adly and alike to enjoy his birthright and priv\u00adi\u00adlege; even all where\u00adof God by nature has made him free<\/em>. [5]<\/span><\/p>\n

The Lev\u00adellers pro\u00adduced many such doc\u00adu\u00adments, many of which are cur\u00adrent\u00adly being made acces\u00adsi\u00adble online. John Row\u00adland, in his pref\u00adace to the Con\u00adsti\u00adtu\u00adtion Soci\u00adety\u2019s data\u00adbase of such lit\u00ader\u00ada\u00adture, com\u00adments that \u201cTheir pro\u00adpos\u00adals con\u00adtin\u00adued, how\u00adev\u00ader, to inspire polit\u00adi\u00adcal philoso\u00adphers and future gen\u00ader\u00ada\u00adtions of reform\u00aders. They appear to have influ\u00adenced their con\u00adtem\u00adpo\u00adrary, Thomas Hobbes, and lat\u00ader writ\u00aders such as James Har\u00adring\u00adton and John Locke. Their pro\u00adpos\u00adals were revived dur\u00ading the Rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion of 1688 to pro\u00adduce the Eng\u00adlish Bill of Rights in 1689, which led to the Whig par\u00adty in Britain that sup\u00adport\u00aded many of the reforms for Britain sought by the Amer\u00adi\u00adcans dur\u00ading the War of Inde\u00adpen\u00addence.\u201d [6]<\/span><\/p>\n

The Lev\u00adellers spoke the lan\u00adguage of the Protes\u00adtant Ref\u00ador\u00adma\u00adtion, but their atti\u00adtudes were not new. Eng\u00adland expe\u00adri\u00adenced a vio\u00adlent peas\u00adant upris\u00ading in 1381, and we have some records of what the rebels said. Here is a just\u00adly famed quo\u00adta\u00adtion attrib\u00aduted to John Ball, one of the rebel\u00adlion\u2019s leaders:<\/span><\/p>\n

\u201c<\/span>When Adam dalf, and Eve span, who was thanne a gen\u00adtil\u00adman? From the begin\u00adning all men were cre\u00adat\u00aded equal by nature, and that servi\u00adtude had been intro\u00adduced by the unjust and evil oppres\u00adsion of men, against the will of God, who, if it had pleased Him to cre\u00adate serfs, sure\u00adly in the begin\u00adning of the world would have appoint\u00aded who should be a serf and who a lord<\/em>\u201d [7]<\/span><\/p>\n

It seems doubt\u00adful to me that there ever was a peri\u00adod, such as rul\u00ading class\u00ades like to imag\u00adine, when those at the bot\u00adtom of the heap accept\u00aded their posi\u00adtion as divine\u00adly ordained, with unques\u00adtion\u00ading piety and self-abne\u00adga\u00adtion. And it seems equal\u00adly doubt\u00adful that peas\u00adants in any age could not for\u00admu\u00adlate some the\u00ado\u00adry of equal\u00adi\u00adty. They did not need leisured philoso\u00adphers to think it up for them. Con\u00adceiv\u00ading of equal\u00adi\u00adty is not the hard part. The dif\u00adfi\u00adcul\u00adty lies in devis\u00ading a viable strat\u00ade\u00adgy to achieve it. The prob\u00adlem appears to be iden\u00adti\u00adcal for the poor and oppressed with\u00adin Chris\u00adt\u00adian, Mus\u00adlim, Bud\u00addhist, or any oth\u00ader reli\u00adgious tra\u00addi\u00adtion. I see no rea\u00adson why the solu\u00adtion should depend on some par\u00adtic\u00adu\u00adlar faith.<\/span><\/p>\n

I\u2019m remind\u00aded of a sequence of inter\u00adviews I once saw in a doc\u00adu\u00admen\u00adtary pro\u00adduced by Cana\u00addi\u00adans vis\u00adit\u00ading a small West African coun\u00adtry. The local dic\u00adta\u00adtor assured them that none of his sub\u00adjects had any knowl\u00adedge of democ\u00adra\u00adcy, or want\u00aded to have any. A pow\u00ader\u00adful busi\u00adness\u00adman dis\u00admissed democ\u00adra\u00adcy as a con\u00adcept com\u00adplete\u00adly \u201calien\u201d to the local cul\u00adture. A pres\u00adti\u00adgious aca\u00add\u00ade\u00adm\u00adic explained that the pop\u00adu\u00adla\u00adtion had nev\u00ader heard of it, could not grasp it, and wouldn\u2019t want it if they could. It was a mere \u201cWest\u00adern idea\u201d, they all explained, of no use to the com\u00admon peo\u00adple. Then the doc\u00adu\u00admen\u00adtary crew inter\u00adviewed an old man, an elder in a tiny, remote, and impov\u00ader\u00adished vil\u00adlage. After being told what the crew had heard from the oth\u00aders, he spoke patient\u00adly in slow, and thick\u00adly accent\u00aded French. \u201cOf course we know what democ\u00adra\u00adcy is,\u201d he said. \u201cWhat\u2019s so dif\u00adfi\u00adcult to under\u00adstand? Do you think we\u2019re so stu\u00adpid that we can\u2019t fig\u00adure out that we\u2019re being screwed?\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n

We must address the his\u00adtor\u00adi\u00adcal record with the same deter\u00admined skep\u00adti\u00adcism as that doc\u00adu\u00admen\u00adtary crew. We should ques\u00adtion the clich\u00e9s for\u00admu\u00adlat\u00aded by those who ben\u00ade\u00adfit from injus\u00adtice. One of the things that I learned, as a child, when I first read Fred\u00ader\u00adick Dou\u00adglas, was that there\u2019s a great dif\u00adfer\u00adence between what the slaves on a plan\u00adta\u00adtion think, and what their mas\u00adters think they think.<\/span><\/p>\n

To repeat a cru\u00adcial point, think\u00ading up ideas of jus\u00adtice and equal\u00adi\u00adty is not dif\u00adfi\u00adcult. Achiev\u00ading them is dif\u00adfi\u00adcult. A long and painful his\u00adtor\u00adi\u00adcal expe\u00adri\u00adence has demon\u00adstrat\u00aded that the most oppressed seg\u00adments of soci\u00adety rarely improve their sit\u00adu\u00ada\u00adtion with rebel\u00adlion alone. His\u00adto\u00adry is lit\u00adtered with failed peas\u00adant upris\u00adings, which were either ruth\u00adless\u00adly crushed, or where quick\u00adly hijacked by ide\u00adol\u00ado\u00adgists bent on installing them\u00adselves as a new aris\u00adtoc\u00adra\u00adcy. The less com\u00admon suc\u00adcess\u00ades occurred when the idea of equal\u00adi\u00adty found its way into the hearts of many dif\u00adfer\u00adent \u201cstake\u00adhold\u00aders\u201d, includ\u00ading some who were not among the most des\u00adper\u00adate or oppressed. As with all com\u00adplex prob\u00adlems, you are more like\u00adly to get a solu\u00adtion when it\u2019s being exam\u00adined by a vari\u00adety of peo\u00adple with a vari\u00adety of per\u00adspec\u00adtives and a vari\u00adety of skills.<\/span><\/p>\n

What made the Enlight\u00aden\u00adment a remark\u00adable peri\u00adod was not that ideas of equal\u00adi\u00adty, rights, and democ\u00adra\u00adcy were being invent\u00aded for the first time, but that they were being argued and writ\u00adten about by a greater num\u00adber and vari\u00adety of peo\u00adple, with more time and resources to explore them philo\u00adsoph\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly, includ\u00ading some peo\u00adple who lived in com\u00adfort and priv\u00adi\u00adlege. West\u00adern Euro\u00adpean and North Amer\u00adi\u00adcan soci\u00adety had grown so eco\u00adnom\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly com\u00adplex that there was room to have peo\u00adple who were edu\u00adcat\u00aded and leisured, but not com\u00admit\u00adted by self-inter\u00adest to the idea of inequal\u00adi\u00adty. It became pos\u00adsi\u00adble for a land\u00aded gen\u00adtle\u00adman, who grew up on a slave plan\u00adta\u00adtion, to ques\u00adtion the moral\u00adi\u00adty of slav\u00adery (at least the\u00ado\u00adret\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly). It became pos\u00adsi\u00adble for a pet\u00adty aris\u00adto\u00adcrat or a coun\u00adtry squire to toy with the idea that his crofters might be his equals. More impor\u00adtant still, some places had a large num\u00adber of lit\u00ader\u00adate peo\u00adple of hum\u00adble ori\u00adgins, but com\u00adfort\u00adable means. They pro\u00advid\u00aded a pay\u00ading audi\u00adence for self-made writ\u00aders and artists. An intel\u00adli\u00adgent appren\u00adtice corset-mak\u00ader, such as Thomas Paine, could run off to Lon\u00addon, edu\u00adcate him\u00adself from pam\u00adphlets, books, and cof\u00adfee\u00adhouse chat\u00adter, and turn him\u00adself into an famous intel\u00adlec\u00adtu\u00adal. A woman like Mary Woll\u00adstonecraft, who began by eking out a liv\u00ading as a chil\u00addren\u2019s tutor and gov\u00aderness, could do the same [8]. Ams\u00adter\u00addam could turn any pen\u00adni\u00adless refugee into a suc\u00adcess\u00adful painter, a scrib\u00adbler of sedi\u00adtious porno\u00adgraph\u00adic nov\u00adels, or a philoso\u00adpher. And some places, such as New Eng\u00adland vil\u00adlages, had already enough expe\u00adri\u00adence of decen\u00adtral\u00adized and egal\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan democ\u00adra\u00adcy to enable a smith or a cowherd to pub\u00adlish essays on meta\u00adphysics in the local journal.<\/span><\/p>\n

The dis\u00adcus\u00adsions that took place among the philosophes<\/em> were both more intri\u00adcate and more exten\u00adsive than any\u00adone would guess from mere\u00adly read\u00ading a hand\u00adful of works ear\u00admarked by pos\u00adter\u00adi\u00adty as \u201cimpor\u00adtant\u201d ones. Our edu\u00adca\u00adtion gives us the impres\u00adsion that it was a dis\u00adcus\u00adsion tak\u00ading place among a few dozen peo\u00adple, like some arcane debate about the rel\u00ada\u00adtive mer\u00adits of a high-order glob\u00adal states inter\u00adpre\u00adta\u00adtion and a het\u00aderophe\u00adnom\u00ade\u00adno\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal inter\u00adpre\u00adta\u00adtion of the glob\u00adal neu\u00adronal work\u00adspace mod\u00adel of con\u00adscious\u00adness, tak\u00ading place in a mod\u00adern uni\u00adver\u00adsi\u00adty. This was far from the case. The Enlight\u00aden\u00adment was a vast and poly\u00adglot dis\u00adcus\u00adsion between tens of thou\u00adsands of peo\u00adple. Vil\u00adlage cur\u00e9s<\/em>, linen whole\u00adsalers, and pet\u00adty bureau\u00adcrats earnest\u00adly debat\u00aded issues of rep\u00adre\u00adsen\u00adta\u00adtive gov\u00adern\u00adment, the prop\u00ader role of the Estates, the nature of man, equal\u00adi\u00adty and inequal\u00adi\u00adty, fis\u00adcal pol\u00adi\u00adcy, and lib\u00ader\u00adty. This was a state of affairs that held true for two cen\u00adturies, or more. The works that were wide\u00adly dis\u00adcussed and influ\u00aden\u00adtial were not nec\u00ades\u00adsar\u00adi\u00adly those that have come down to us as the impor\u00adtant ones Thinkers like Bec\u00adca\u00adria, Grotius, Ser\u00advan, and Gassen\u00addi loomed much larg\u00ader than the present taste sug\u00adgests. Some names have been inflat\u00aded ret\u00adro\u00adspec\u00adtive\u00adly because they appealed to lat\u00ader gen\u00ader\u00ada\u00adtions. Rousseau may have had a \u201cpop star\u201d vogue among many aris\u00adto\u00adcrats, pre\u00adcise\u00adly because of his per\u00adson\u00adal eccen\u00adtric\u00adi\u00adty and because his ideas were patent\u00adly imprac\u00adti\u00adcal. But he seems to have had lit\u00adtle influ\u00adence on the sober men who rebelled against tyran\u00adny in the real world. The idea of the \u201csocial con\u00adtract\u201d was com\u00admon\u00adplace long before Rousseau, and it\u2019s doubt\u00adful that his rather bizarre ver\u00adsion of it was cen\u00adtral to any his\u00adtor\u00adi\u00adcal events.<\/span><\/p>\n

The philo\u00adsoph\u00adi\u00adcal side of the Enlight\u00aden\u00adment was not a leisure\u00adly debate between a hand\u00adful of philoso\u00adphers. It was a rau\u00adcous, many-sided, free-for-all dis\u00adcus\u00adsion, among a diverse and cos\u00admopoli\u00adtan pop\u00adu\u00adla\u00adtion. While it took place in a pri\u00admar\u00adi\u00adly \u201cChris\u00adt\u00adian\u201d sphere, that sphere con\u00adtained such an extreme diver\u00adsi\u00adty of inter\u00adpre\u00adta\u00adtions of Chris\u00adtian\u00adi\u00adty that it\u2019s mean\u00ading\u00adless to speak of it as being shaped or lim\u00adit\u00aded by specif\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly Chris\u00adt\u00adian doctrines.<\/span><\/p>\n

This brings us to the sec\u00adond ques\u00adtion\u00adable assump\u00adtion, which is that the devel\u00adop\u00ading demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic ideas of the Enlight\u00aden\u00adment were an exclu\u00adsive\u00adly Euro\u00adpean event that occurred in iso\u00adla\u00adtion from the rest of the world, as a self-con\u00adtained devel\u00adop\u00adment of Euro\u00adpean cul\u00adture. This idea still remains a very strong one, and under\u00adlies both the trendy notion of a \u201cclash of civ\u00adi\u00adliza\u00adtions\u201d and the clich\u00e9 that democ\u00adra\u00adcy is a \u201cWest\u00adern idea\u201d.<\/span><\/p>\n

But this is an entire\u00adly fal\u00adla\u00adcious view of how the intel\u00adlec\u00adtu\u00adal fer\u00adment of the Enlight\u00aden\u00adment came into being.<\/span><\/p>\n

The Chris\u00adt\u00adian doc\u00adtrine of West\u00adern Europe, at the dawn of the Enlight\u00aden\u00adment. was already the prod\u00aduct of an intense inter\u00adplay between Chris\u00adtian\u00adi\u00adty and Islam. Post-Clas\u00adsi\u00adcal West\u00adern Europe, in its ear\u00adli\u00adest phase, was far too poor and back\u00adward to have much in the way of sci\u00adence or sophis\u00adti\u00adcat\u00aded phi\u00adlos\u00ado\u00adphy. For cen\u00adturies, Chris\u00adt\u00adian thought west of Byzan\u00adtium was dom\u00adi\u00adnat\u00aded by hagiog\u00adra\u00adphy, the fix\u00ading of rit\u00adu\u00adals, and the retelling of mir\u00ada\u00adcles. Out\u00adside of Italy, there were few towns, and the largest of them would have been dwarfed by the great Mus\u00adlim cities. The Islam\u00adic world was over\u00adwhelm\u00ading\u00adly rich\u00ader in sci\u00adence, med\u00adi\u00adcine, art, lit\u00ader\u00ada\u00adture, tech\u00adnol\u00ado\u00adgy, and hard cash. A sin\u00adgle library in a mid\u00addle-sized Mus\u00adlim town would have had more books than the entire\u00adty of West\u00adern Chris\u00adten\u00addom. [9]<\/span><\/p>\n

When this back\u00adward area devel\u00adoped itself suf\u00adfi\u00adcient\u00adly to engage the Mus\u00adlim world (in the form of the Cru\u00adsades and the Recon\u00adquista<\/em>) the result was that Mus\u00adlim learn\u00ading, Mus\u00adlim sci\u00adence, and Mus\u00adlim con\u00adsumer prod\u00aducts swept over West\u00adern Europe like an avalanche. The traf\u00adfic was pret\u00adty much on a one-way street. Europe had lit\u00adtle it could give in return. In the intel\u00adlec\u00adtu\u00adal sphere, this meant the absorp\u00adtion of Mus\u00adlim learn\u00ading, includ\u00ading the Greek knowl\u00adedge that Islam had absorbed and elab\u00ado\u00adrat\u00aded. By the end of the mid\u00addle ages, the offi\u00adcial the\u00adol\u00ado\u00adgy of the Catholic Church was a body of rea\u00adson\u00ading and argu\u00adment that had been bor\u00adrowed direct\u00adly from Islam\u00adic the\u00adol\u00ado\u00adgy. In many cas\u00ades, com\u00adplex works had been dupli\u00adcat\u00aded point-for-point.<\/span><\/p>\n

What thrilled the Chris\u00adt\u00adian schol\u00adars who devoured Ibn Rushd and Ibn Sina, apart from the new knowl\u00adedge, was that at last they were exposed to a high lev\u00adel of rea\u00adson\u00ading. Save for a few shreds of old Roman phi\u00adlos\u00ado\u00adphy, their cul\u00adture did not have access to much dis\u00adci\u00adplined, rea\u00adsoned thought, and had not placed a great val\u00adue on log\u00adic. Sym\u00adpa\u00adthet\u00adic mag\u00adic, mir\u00ada\u00adcles, para\u00adbles and par\u00adal\u00adlels to bib\u00adli\u00adcal sto\u00adries were the stuff of seri\u00adous thought. Solv\u00ading a con\u00adcrete prob\u00adlem by Ijte\u00adhad<\/em> was not the pre\u00adferred approach. Before West\u00adern Chris\u00adtian\u00adi\u00adty could even begin to address seri\u00adous issues, it had to under\u00adgo a com\u00adplete over\u00adhaul by expo\u00adsure to Islam.<\/span><\/p>\n

This was not a one-time event. In the first phase, Europe trans\u00adformed itself by open\u00ading itself up to the Islam\u00adic world, and the Clas\u00adsi\u00adcal and Hebra\u00adic her\u00aditage that the Islam\u00adic world had inher\u00adit\u00aded and extend\u00aded. In the next phase, Europe was to trans\u00adform itself by open\u00ading itself up to the rest of the world, with a spe\u00adcial empha\u00adsis on India.<\/span><\/p>\n

The Age of Explo\u00adration is thought of, today, in terms of the dis\u00adcov\u00adery of the West\u00adern Hemi\u00adsphere. That adven\u00adture led to Euro\u00adpean con\u00adquests and expan\u00adsion into a huge area. How\u00adev\u00ader, in the begin\u00adning, the New World was just a side-show to Europe\u2019s main focus. Euro\u00adpeans had a des\u00adper\u00adate desire to gain access to the wealthy civ\u00adi\u00adliza\u00adtions of the East. It would be cen\u00adturies before Euro\u00adpeans would be able to have any seri\u00adous mil\u00adi\u00adtary, eco\u00adnom\u00adic, or cul\u00adtur\u00adal impact on these civ\u00adi\u00adliza\u00adtions. In the mean\u00adtime, their efforts would have to be con\u00adfined to shop\u00adping, or when that was not viable, pira\u00adcy. West\u00adern Europe did have some prod\u00aducts and ideas that made their way east\u00adward, but, as with the inter\u00adac\u00adtion with Islam a few cen\u00adturies before, the traf\u00adfic was most\u00adly one way. Along with the lux\u00adu\u00adry goods and tech\u00adni\u00adcal inno\u00adva\u00adtions, they absorbed new reli\u00adgious and philo\u00adsoph\u00adi\u00adcal ideas.<\/span><\/p>\n

The debates of the Enlight\u00aden\u00adment took place in a soci\u00adety that was being bom\u00adbard\u00aded by new expe\u00adri\u00adences. Every Euro\u00adpean trav\u00adel\u00ader brought back infor\u00adma\u00adtion from anoth\u00ader exot\u00adic locale. By the 17th Cen\u00adtu\u00adry, the ini\u00adtial adven\u00adtur\u00adous voy\u00adages of dis\u00adcov\u00adery had been replaced by elab\u00ado\u00adrate diplo\u00admat\u00adic and trade arrange\u00adments. Keen Euro\u00adpean observers were flood\u00ading the read\u00ading pub\u00adlic, back home, with detailed descrip\u00adtions of folk cus\u00adtoms, reli\u00adgious prac\u00adtice, pol\u00adi\u00adtics, art, and lit\u00ader\u00ada\u00adture from around the globe. The audi\u00adence for these won\u00adders was huge, and appar\u00adent\u00adly insatiable.<\/span><\/p>\n

When Enlight\u00aden\u00adment thinkers engaged in debate on philo\u00adsoph\u00adi\u00adcal, reli\u00adgious, sci\u00aden\u00adtif\u00adic, or aes\u00adthet\u00adic issues, they did so in a glob\u00adal, not a pure\u00adly Euro\u00adpean or Chris\u00adt\u00adian con\u00adtext. This is an aspect of the Enlight\u00aden\u00adment that most mod\u00adern read\u00aders either under\u00ades\u00adti\u00admate, or miss entirely.<\/span><\/p>\n

Let\u2019s look at a work that had an big influ\u00adence on Euro\u00adpean thought for more than a cen\u00adtu\u00adry after its pub\u00adli\u00adca\u00adtion, at the end of the 17th Cen\u00adtu\u00adry. It was called Let\u00adters Writ by a Turk\u00adish Spy<\/em>. The first vol\u00adume of this mas\u00adsive work was writ\u00adten by a rather shad\u00adowy Genoese named Gio\u00advan\u00adni Pao\u00adlo Marana, appar\u00adent\u00adly while in prison. Sev\u00aden sub\u00adse\u00adquent vol\u00adumes were added by Eng\u00adlish authors, the last one pos\u00adsi\u00adbly being Daniel Defoe. It was very, very pop\u00adu\u00adlar. It was reis\u00adsued 37 times, and avail\u00adable in Ital\u00adian, French, Ger\u00adman, Eng\u00adlish and Russ\u00adian. It trig\u00adgered numer\u00adous imi\u00adta\u00adtions, amongst them Montesquieu\u2019s Let\u00adtres Per\u00adsanes<\/em>.<\/span><\/p>\n

Let\u00adters Writ by a Turk\u00adish Spy<\/em> is a fic\u00adtion\u00adal com\u00adpi\u00adla\u00adtion of let\u00adters from an imag\u00adi\u00adnary Ottoman spy oper\u00adat\u00ading in Paris. It\u2019s a fair\u00adly sophis\u00adti\u00adcat\u00aded polit\u00adi\u00adcal thriller. The hero, Mah\u00admut, expe\u00adri\u00adences the siege of Vien\u00adna from the Turk\u00adish view\u00adpoint, and sends intel\u00adli\u00adgence dis\u00adpatch\u00ades from Euro\u00adpean courts to the Sub\u00adlime Porte. The book con\u00adtains lengthy rumi\u00adna\u00adtions on Mah\u00admut\u2019s lone\u00adli\u00adness and alien\u00adation, as a devout Mus\u00adlim liv\u00ading secret\u00adly among Chris\u00adtians. Mah\u00admut strug\u00adgles with a failed mar\u00adriage to a Greek woman. He indulges in acer\u00adbic dis\u00adcus\u00adsions of com\u00adpar\u00ada\u00adtive reli\u00adgion. Much thought is devot\u00aded to Deism, Epi\u00adcu\u00adri\u00adan\u00adism, and to a Mus\u00adlim Neo\u00adpla\u00adton\u00adist sect from Abbasid Iraq called the Brethren of Sin\u00adcer\u00adi\u00adty [Ikhwan al-Safa<\/em> (\u0627\u0627\u0644\u0635\u0641 \u0627\u062e\u0648\u0627\u0646) ]. The book\u2019s pic\u00adture of Mus\u00adlim life is sym\u00adpa\u00adthet\u00adic and, much more accu\u00adrate than you would expect. As Mah\u00admut sys\u00adtem\u00adat\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly exam\u00adines many reli\u00adgious faiths, he comes to the con\u00adclu\u00adsion that, if arbi\u00adtrary cus\u00adtoms and localisms were cleared away, then uni\u00adfy\u00ading prin\u00adci\u00adples might be found. Among such prin\u00adci\u00adples he selects the Gold\u00aden Rule (\u201cthe Fun\u00adda\u00admen\u00adtal Law of Nature, the Orig\u00adi\u00adnal Jus\u00adtice of the World\u201d), a psy\u00adchol\u00ado\u00adgy of \u201cuni\u00adver\u00adsal sym\u00adpa\u00adthy\u201d, and veg\u00ade\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan\u00adism, which he feels is implic\u00adit in the Jew\u00adish and Mus\u00adlim tra\u00addi\u00adtions of kosher<\/em> and halal<\/em>, in Pythagore\u00adanism, and most explic\u00adit\u00adly in Brah\u00adman\u00adic ahim\u00adsa<\/em>. In one charm\u00ading pas\u00adsage, he chal\u00adlenges Descartes and Hobbes, who insist\u00aded that ani\u00admals had nei\u00adther feel\u00adings nor rights because they could not speak. Mah\u00admut declares that \u201cI con\u00adtract famil\u00adiar\u00adi\u00adties with the harm\u00adless ani\u00admals. I study like a Lover to oblige and win their hearts, by all the ten\u00adder offices I can per\u00adform\u2026 then when we once begin to under\u00adstand each oth\u00ader aright, they make me a thou\u00adsand sweet returns of grat\u00adi\u00adtude accord\u00ading to their kind\u201d [10] .<\/span><\/p>\n

Works exhibit\u00ading such sen\u00adti\u00adments, and draw\u00ading on a broad cross-cul\u00adtur\u00adal expe\u00adri\u00adence, were quite com\u00admon dur\u00ading the peri\u00adod. They reflect\u00aded a pub\u00adlic exhaus\u00adtion and dis\u00aden\u00adchant\u00adment with the bru\u00adtal reli\u00adgious con\u00adflicts that had torn Europe apart. The jour\u00adney towards tol\u00ader\u00ada\u00adtion, sec\u00adu\u00adlar\u00adism, and abstract Deism began with a num\u00adber of works, pub\u00adlished in Hol\u00adland, which crit\u00adi\u00adcized the valid\u00adi\u00adty of mir\u00ada\u00adcles and witch\u00adcraft. The com\u00adpar\u00ada\u00adtive study of world reli\u00adgions, and the attempt to find under\u00adly\u00ading prin\u00adci\u00adples for them, was the next step, as exem\u00adpli\u00adfied by this pop\u00adu\u00adlar work. And this process can\u00adnot log\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly be called Eurocentric.<\/span><\/p>\n

Now let\u2019s look at a sec\u00adond work, which had a sim\u00adi\u00adlar pop\u00adu\u00adlar\u00adi\u00adty dur\u00ading the Enlight\u00aden\u00adment. This was Fran\u00e7ois Bernier\u2019s Trav\u00adels in the Mogul Empire AD<\/span> 1656\u20131668<\/em>. [11] . Bernier worked as a physi\u00adcian in the ser\u00advice of the Mughal Emper\u00ador Aurangzeb. His book was high\u00adly crit\u00adi\u00adcal of Indi\u00adan soci\u00adety, but most\u00adly because he felt it suf\u00adfered from the same irra\u00adtional beliefs that plagued Chris\u00adtians in Europe. But he was impressed by ahim\u00adsa<\/em>, the doc\u00adtrine of the trans\u00admi\u00adgra\u00adtion of souls, and the Brah\u00adman\u00adic diet. He felt that all three con\u00adtributed to a respect for life and a reduc\u00adtion of cru\u00adel\u00adty. This theme would sub\u00adse\u00adquent\u00adly recur in Euro\u00adpean and North Amer\u00adi\u00adcan thought. Future gen\u00ader\u00ada\u00adtions would repeat\u00aded\u00adly look to India for some sort of wis\u00addom, whether ratio\u00adnal or occult. Today\u2019s \u201cNew Age\u201d beliefs are lin\u00adear descen\u00addants of Bernier\u2019s com\u00admen\u00adtaries. Between then and now, one notes such tell-tale sign\u00adposts as the \u201cBoston Brah\u00admins\u201d and the Tran\u00adscen\u00adden\u00adtal\u00adists, and the dis\u00adci\u00adples of Madame Blavatsky and Gurdjief.<\/span><\/p>\n

Bernier was no iso\u00adlat\u00aded crank. He was the pupil and inti\u00admate friend of the philoso\u00adpher-math\u00ade\u00admati\u00adcian Pierre Gassen\u00addi, who debat\u00aded with Descartes on the issues of empiri\u00adcism and the nature of ani\u00admals (which he would not dis\u00admiss, as did Descartes, as \u201cmachines\u201d). Gassen\u00addi has been pooh-poohed by most twen\u00adti\u00adeth cen\u00adtu\u00adry schol\u00adars, but his influ\u00adence on the Enlight\u00aden\u00adment was sig\u00adnif\u00adi\u00adcant, par\u00adtic\u00adu\u00adlar\u00adly through Locke, Leib\u00adniz and New\u00adton. A recent reap\u00adpraisal may reverse his cur\u00adrent lack of pres\u00adtige [12]. Bernier was also a friend of John Locke, who drew on him as a source for com\u00adpar\u00ada\u00adtive reli\u00adgion in the Essay Con\u00adcern\u00ading Human Under\u00adstand\u00ading<\/em>, Under Bernier\u2019s influ\u00adence, Locke made a study of all avail\u00adable com\u00admen\u00adtary on Hinduism.<\/span><\/p>\n

No per\u00adson is more emblem\u00adat\u00adic of the era\u2019s great leap of knowl\u00adedge and insight than Isaac New\u00adton. His dis\u00adcov\u00adery of the prin\u00adci\u00adple of uni\u00adver\u00adsal grav\u00adi\u00adta\u00adtion, and his Prin\u00adcip\u00adia Math\u00ade\u00admat\u00adi\u00adca<\/em> are con\u00adsid\u00adered by many to be the most impor\u00adtant achieve\u00adments of the human mind. But they were work of New\u00adton\u2019s youth. He spent the remain\u00adder of his life try\u00ading to absorb the reli\u00adgious scrip\u00adtures and tra\u00addi\u00adtions of the world, hop\u00ading to recon\u00adstruct a puta\u00adtive \u201corig\u00adi\u00adnal reli\u00adgion\u201d, of which he con\u00adsid\u00adered Chris\u00adtian\u00adi\u00adty to be no more than one of many derivations.[13]<\/span><\/p>\n

These three exam\u00adples are typ\u00adi\u00adcal of the skep\u00adti\u00adcal, mul\u00adti-cul\u00adtur\u00adal, and mul\u00adti-reli\u00adgious atmos\u00adphere in which Enlight\u00aden\u00adment think\u00ading flour\u00adished. It\u2019s in that atmos\u00adphere, open to non-Euro\u00adpean influ\u00adences, that debates about the prop\u00ader rela\u00adtion\u00adship of human beings to the state, equal\u00adi\u00adty, and human rights (nat\u00adur\u00adal or oth\u00ader\u00adwise) took place.<\/span><\/p>\n

Long after the Enlight\u00aden\u00adment era, when some coun\u00adtries had devel\u00adoped a rel\u00ada\u00adtive\u00adly suc\u00adcess\u00adful degree of demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic insti\u00adtu\u00adtions, many peo\u00adple began to ask why and how that suc\u00adcess had come into being. Some just felt that it was a side-effect of tech\u00adni\u00adcal progress and pros\u00adper\u00adi\u00adty. Oth\u00aders felt that cause and effect ran the oth\u00ader way round. The most strik\u00ading suc\u00adcess had tak\u00aden place in lands that were pre\u00addom\u00adi\u00adnant\u00adly Chris\u00adt\u00adian, though their state insti\u00adtu\u00adtions were sec\u00adu\u00adlar. It was easy to jump to the con\u00adclu\u00adsion that Chris\u00adt\u00adian doc\u00adtrines must some\u00adhow have led to this out\u00adcome. But attempts to demon\u00adstrate this usu\u00adal\u00adly col\u00adlapsed in con\u00adfu\u00adsion. Either demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic ideas were said to be inher\u00adent in Chris\u00adt\u00adian doc\u00adtrine or prac\u00adtice, or democ\u00adra\u00adcy was seen as emerg\u00ading from the attempts of dis\u00adsi\u00addents and skep\u00adtics to free them\u00adselves from the con\u00adstraints of Chris\u00adt\u00adian cus\u00adtoms and doc\u00adtrine. While these two views are incom\u00adpat\u00adi\u00adble, they share the implic\u00adit assump\u00adtion that the pres\u00adence of Chris\u00adtian\u00adi\u00adty is some\u00adhow nec\u00ades\u00adsary for the process to take place. Most inter\u00adpre\u00adta\u00adtions, on exam\u00adi\u00adna\u00adtion, turn out to be jum\u00adbles of spe\u00adcious cau\u00adsa\u00adtion jump\u00ading back and forth between the two implied direc\u00adtions, but always pre\u00adserv\u00ading the mag\u00adi\u00adcal cor\u00adre\u00adspon\u00addence. This cor\u00adre\u00adspon\u00addence amounts to noth\u00ading more than \u201cI was wear\u00ading a blue hat when I won the lot\u00adtery, there\u00adfore peo\u00adple who want to win the lot\u00adtery should wear a blue hat\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n

The con\u00adnec\u00adtion between arti\u00adcles of reli\u00adgious faith, espe\u00adcial\u00adly in the form of abstract the\u00ado\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal pre\u00adcepts, and what peo\u00adple do in prac\u00adti\u00adcal sit\u00adu\u00ada\u00adtions, has nev\u00ader been obvi\u00adous. Paci\u00adfism, for instance, is a pret\u00adty straight\u00adfor\u00adward tenet of Chris\u00adtian\u00adi\u00adty, rec\u00adog\u00adnized by most Chris\u00adtians as cen\u00adtral to the teach\u00ading of Christ. Yet how much paci\u00adfist behav\u00adiour has Chris\u00adtian\u00adi\u00adty gen\u00ader\u00adat\u00aded? Only a hand\u00adful of micro\u00adscop\u00adic sects have prac\u00adticed it, and they have gen\u00ader\u00adal\u00adly suf\u00adfered per\u00adse\u00adcu\u00adtion in the \u201cChris\u00adt\u00adian\u201d world. How many Bud\u00addhists actu\u00adal\u00adly make any effort to fol\u00adlow the Eight\u00adfold Path? Even if a par\u00adtic\u00adu\u00adlar reli\u00adgion can be shown to have some abstract prin\u00adci\u00adple that sup\u00adports demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic the\u00ado\u00adry, it does not fol\u00adlow that the peo\u00adple of that faith are bound to act democratically.<\/span><\/p>\n

Democ\u00adra\u00adcy is some\u00adthing that peo\u00adple do<\/em>. It\u2019s a prac\u00adti\u00adcal approach to solv\u00ading con\u00adcrete prob\u00adlems. It\u2019s evo\u00adlu\u00adtion can best be \u201cexplained\u201d in terms of the nature of the prob\u00adlems, and the oppor\u00adtu\u00adni\u00adties that opened up to impro\u00advise their solu\u00adtions. The idea of democ\u00adra\u00adcy can be con\u00adnect\u00aded to cer\u00adtain abstract prin\u00adci\u00adples \u2014 nat\u00adur\u00adal rights, human equal\u00adi\u00adty, the worth of indi\u00advid\u00adual human beings \u2014 but these are not specif\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly reli\u00adgious prin\u00adci\u00adples, and spe\u00adcif\u00adic faiths con\u00adnect to them only in the gen\u00ader\u00adal sense that any faith can be made to con\u00adnect to them. West\u00adern Euro\u00adpean and North Amer\u00adi\u00adcan soci\u00adeties made some notable advances in democ\u00adra\u00adcy, not because they were Chris\u00adt\u00adian, but because they were diverse and mul\u00adti\u00adfac\u00adeted soci\u00adeties exposed to a mul\u00adti\u00adplic\u00adi\u00adty of ideas. Diver\u00adsi\u00adty is the moth\u00ader of inven\u00adtion. I applaud attempts to inter\u00adpret Islam as con\u00adsis\u00adtent with demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic prac\u00adtice, because I applaud anyone\u2019s attempts to make any aspect of their lives con\u00adsis\u00adtent with demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic prac\u00adtice. But the exer\u00adcise is not nec\u00ades\u00adsary, except in the sense that it may ulti\u00admate\u00adly lead to peo\u00adple see\u00ading the issue in the non-reli\u00adgious, and non-eth\u00adnic frame\u00adwork that it prop\u00ader\u00adly inhabits.<\/span><\/p>\n

FOOTNOTES<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

[1] Jil\u00adlani, Tas\u00adsaduq Hus\u00adsain. Democ\u00adra\u00adcy and Islam: An Odyssey in Brav\u00ading the Twen\u00adty-First Cen\u00adtu\u00adry<\/em>. Brigham Young Uni\u00adver\u00adsi\u00adty Law Review. 2006.<\/span><\/p>\n

[2] \u2018Abb\u0101s Ma\u1e25m\u016bd al-\u2018Aqq\u0101d (1889\u20131964) quot\u00aded in above<\/span>
\n \u0639\u0628\u0627\u0633 \u0645\u062d\u0645\u0648\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0642\u0627\u062f<\/span><\/p>\n

[3] Jil\u00adlani had pre\u00advi\u00adous\u00adly dis\u00adcussed this at length in the Pak\u00adistan Dai\u00adly Times<\/em>, Nov.9, 2005: Plu\u00adral\u00adism and Tol\u00ader\u00adance in Islam<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n

[4] The True Lev\u00adellers Stan\u00addard Advanced: or, the State of Com\u00admu\u00adni\u00adty opened and Pre\u00adsent\u00aded to the Sons of Men<\/em>. Lon\u00addon. 1649. Renais\u00adsance Edi\u00adtions, an Online Repos\u00adi\u00adto\u00adry of Works Print\u00aded in Eng\u00adlish Between the Years 1477 and 1799. Uni\u00adver\u00adsi\u00adty of Ore\u00adgon. http:\/\/darkwing.uoregon.edu\/%7Erbear\/ren.htm<\/span><\/p>\n

[5] Over\u00adton, Richard. An Arrow Against All Tyrants<\/em>. The Rota, Essex. 1976. Reprint of the 1646 ed.<\/span><\/p>\n

[6] Doc\u00adu\u00adments from The Eng\u00adlish Lev\u00adellers (Cam\u00adbridge UP<\/span>. 1998) are main\u00adtained online by the Con\u00adsti\u00adtu\u00adtion Soci\u00adety. http:\/\/www.constitution.org\/lev\/levellers.htm.<\/span><\/p>\n

[7] Dob\u00adson, R. B. \u2014 The Peas\u00adants revolt of 1381<\/em>. 1970, p.373\u2013375, quotes the pas\u00adsage from from Thomas Wals\u00ading\u00adham\u2019s His\u00adto\u00adria Anglicana<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n

[8] Steve Muhlberg\u00ader (Nipiss\u00ading Uni\u00adver\u00adsi\u00adty) sug\u00adgest\u00aded Woll\u00adstonecraft while perus\u00ading a draft of this article.<\/span><\/p>\n

[9] The size of the libraries of the great Abbasid and Umayyad cities is well-documented:<\/span><\/p>\n

\u201c<\/span>the libraries of Moor\u00adish Spain con\u00adtained close to a mil\u00adlion manuscripts\u2026in Cor\u00addo\u00adba books were more eager\u00adly sought than beau\u00adti\u00adful con\u00adcu\u00adbines or jewels\u2026the city\u2019s glo\u00adry was the Great Library estab\u00adlished by Al-HakamII\u2026ultimately it con\u00adtained 400,000 vol\u00adumes\u201d Erdoes,Richard \u201c1000 AD<\/span>\u201d .Berkley. 1998 p.60\u20136.<\/span><\/p>\n

see also<\/span>
\n Christ, Karl. The Hand\u00adbook of Medieval Library His\u00adto\u00adry<\/em>. Metuchen NJ<\/span>. Scare\u00adcrow Press. 1984. p. 172<\/span>
\n Saun\u00adders. J. J. His\u00adto\u00adry of Medieval Spain<\/em> . NY<\/span>. Routledge.1993. p.167;<\/span>
\n Sor\u00addo, Enrique, Moor\u00adish Spain<\/em> .Toron\u00adto. Ryer\u00adson. 1963. p.55;<\/span>
\n Tit\u00adley, Noram M. \u201cIslam\u201d in The Book Through 5000 Years<\/em> ed. H. Vervli\u00adet . NY<\/span>. Phaidon.1985. p.52;<\/span><\/p>\n

Mus\u00adlim libraries were sys\u00adtem\u00adat\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly cat\u00ada\u00adloged, and books were labeled with pub\u00adli\u00adca\u00adtion data, prove\u00adnance, and a cer\u00adti\u00adfi\u00adca\u00adtion that the copy\u00adist had been trained:<\/span><\/p>\n

C. Prince, \u2018The His\u00adtor\u00adi\u00adcal Con\u00adtext of Ara\u00adbic Trans\u00adla\u00adtion, Learn\u00ading, and The Libraries of Medieval Andalu\u00adsia\u2019, Library His\u00adto\u00adry<\/em>, v. 18, July 2002, p. 73\u201387.<\/span><\/p>\n

But there were sub\u00adstan\u00adtial libraries in many less\u00ader cen\u00adters. Mashad, in Iran, pre\u00adserves one of the few such that sur\u00advived the Mon\u00adgol inva\u00adsion, the Library of Astan Quds Raza\u00advi, in con\u00adtin\u00adu\u00adous exis\u00adtence since 973 A.D. (363 A. H.) which pre\u00adserves 32,485 rare man\u00adu\u00adscripts, includ\u00ading 17,240 ear\u00adly items, going back to the 10th century.<\/span><\/p>\n

For a remark\u00adable descrip\u00adtion of libraries, col\u00adlec\u00adtions, and the book trade dat\u00ading from Almoravid times, in the far-from cen\u00adtral region of Mau\u00adri\u00adta\u00adnia, see:<\/span><\/p>\n

Mous\u00adsa Ould Ebno. The Trea\u00adsures in Mau\u00adri\u00adtani\u2019s Dunes<\/em>. UNESCO<\/span> Couri\u00ader. 2000. http:\/\/www.unesco.org\/courier\/2000_12\/uk\/doss4.htm ;<\/span><\/p>\n

and Louis Wern\u00ader. Mau\u00adri\u00adta\u00adni\u00ada\u2019s Man\u00adu\u00adscripts<\/em>. Sau\u00addi Aram\u00adco World. Nov-Dec 2003.<\/span><\/p>\n

The small oasis town of Chinguet\u00adti, a minor trade cen\u00adter in Almoravid times, has been select\u00aded by UNESCO<\/span> as a World Her\u00aditage Site because of its extra\u00ador\u00addi\u00adnary libraries, where thou\u00adsands of medieval books are pre\u00adserved. A com\u00adplete tenth-cen\u00adtu\u00adry edi\u00adtion of Ibn Rushd has recent\u00adly been uncov\u00adered in an even small\u00ader village.<\/span><\/p>\n

The descrip\u00adtions of Mau\u00adri\u00adta\u00adni\u00ada\u2019s libraries and pri\u00advate col\u00adlec\u00adtion resem\u00adbles my own per\u00adson\u00adal expe\u00adri\u00adence of Timbuktu.<\/span><\/p>\n

The Mus\u00adlim world pub\u00adlished books on paper, which was man\u00adu\u00adfac\u00adtured on an indus\u00adtri\u00adal scale, espe\u00adcial\u00adly in Bagh\u00addad. Europe was restrict\u00aded to vel\u00adlum parch\u00adment until it start\u00aded to import paper from Dam\u00adas\u00adcus, dur\u00ading the cru\u00adsades. It is not known to have been man\u00adu\u00adfac\u00adtured in Europe until 1400. Vel\u00adlum (made from calf-skin) or sheep\u00adskin parch\u00adment required the hides of dozens, some\u00adtimes hun\u00addreds of slaugh\u00adtered ani\u00admals to pro\u00adduce a sin\u00adgle book. At these costs, books could only be a rare lux\u00adu\u00adry, and West\u00adern Euro\u00adpean libraries did not exceed hun\u00addreds, or in some cas\u00ades, a few thou\u00adsand books.<\/span><\/p>\n

[10] Gio\u00advan\u00adni Pao\u00adlo Marana. Let\u00adters Writ by a Turk\u00adish Spy<\/em> select\u00aded and edit\u00aded by Arthur J. Weitz\u00adman. Lon\u00addon. 1970; Tris\u00adtram Stuart\u2019s The Blood\u00adless Rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion<\/em> . Nor\u00adton. New York. 2007. led me to this passage.<\/span><\/p>\n

[11] My local library [Metro Toron\u00adto Cen\u00adtral Ref\u00ader\u00adence] has two edi\u00adtions of the same trans\u00adla\u00adtion, one edit\u00aded by Archibald Con\u00adsta\u00adble, the oth\u00ader under the title Aurangzeb in Kash\u00admir : trav\u00adels in the Mughal Empire<\/em>, edit\u00aded by D. C. Shar\u00adma; again, Tris\u00adtram Stuart\u2019s book led me to them.<\/span><\/p>\n

[12] Anto\u00adnia LoLor\u00addo. Pierre Gassen\u00addi and the Birth of Ear\u00adly Mod\u00adern Philosoph<\/em>y. Cam\u00adbridge . 2006<\/span><\/p>\n

[13 New\u00adton\u2019s mas\u00adsive body of reli\u00adgious, his\u00adtor\u00adi\u00adcal, and anthro\u00adpo\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal writ\u00ading, long unpub\u00adlished, is now being made avail\u00adable online by the New\u00adton Project.<\/span><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

West\u00adern Europe, and lands cul\u00adtur\u00adal\u00adly derived from it, have made some rel\u00ada\u00adtive\u00adly suc\u00adcess\u00adful approx\u00adi\u00adma\u00adtions of democ\u00adra\u00adcy and civ\u00adil soci\u00adety, and com\u00adbined them with notice\u00adable pros\u00adper\u00adi\u00adty. Peo\u00adple both inside and out\u00adside this favoured zone won\u00adder why, and they have often sought the \u2026<\/p>\n

Read more \u00bb<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"wp_typography_post_enhancements_disabled":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[1,11,409],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-1504","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-a-blog","category-at-blog-2007","category-meditations-series"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1504","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=1504"}],"version-history":[{"count":9,"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1504\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":8977,"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1504\/revisions\/8977"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=1504"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcategories&post=1504"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Ftags&post=1504"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}