{"id":5423,"date":"2018-08-10T00:57:28","date_gmt":"2018-08-10T04:57:28","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/?p=5423"},"modified":"2018-12-25T18:04:46","modified_gmt":"2018-12-25T23:04:46","slug":"5423","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/?p=5423","title":{"rendered":"Sixth Meditation on Democracy [written January 10, 2008] REPUBLISHED<\/span>"},"content":{"rendered":"

\"https<\/a>In the begin\u00adning years of this blog, I pub\u00adlished a series of arti\u00adcles called \u201cMed\u00adi\u00adta\u00adtions on Democ\u00adracy and Dic\u00adta\u00adtor\u00adship\u201d which are still reg\u00adu\u00adlarly read today, and have had some influ\u00adence. They still elic\u00adit inquiries from remote cor\u00adners of the globe. They are now buried in the back pages of the blog, so I\u2019m mov\u00ading them up the chrono\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal counter so they can have anoth\u00ader round of vis\u00adi\u00adbil\u00adity, espe\u00adcially (I hope) with younger read\u00aders. I am re-post\u00ading them in their orig\u00adi\u00adnal sequence over part of 2018. Some ref\u00ader\u00adences in these \u201cmed\u00adi\u00adta\u00adtions\u201d will date them to 2007\u20132008, when they were writ\u00adten. But I will leave them un-retouched, though I may occa\u00adsion\u00adally append some ret\u00adro\u00adspec\u00adtive notes. Most\u00adly, they deal with abstract issues that do not need updating.<\/span><\/p>\n

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\"14-03-18<\/a>For this Med\u00adi\u00adta\u00adtion on Democ\u00adra\u00adcy, the sixth in the series, I will under\u00adtake a cri\u00adtique of some cur\u00adrent\u00adly dom\u00adi\u00adnant ideas about the role of democ\u00adra\u00adcy in human his\u00adto\u00adry, and attempt to pro\u00advide a con\u00adcep\u00adtu\u00adal frame\u00adwork for look\u00ading at democ\u00adra\u00adcy in a dif\u00adfer\u00adent, more real\u00adis\u00adtic way. This will mean that some of the ground cov\u00adered in ear\u00adli\u00ader med\u00adi\u00adta\u00adtions will be revis\u00adit\u00aded. It will also draw on the col\u00adlab\u00ado\u00adra\u00adtive work between myself and Prof. Steven Muhlberg\u00ader, pub\u00adlished in the Jour\u00adnal of World His\u00adto\u00adry, and on the World His\u00adto\u00adry of Democ\u00adra\u00adcy Web\u00adsite. I am exclu\u00adsive\u00adly respon\u00adsi\u00adble, how\u00adev\u00ader, for the views expressed in this series. <\/span><\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

The cri\u00adtique will rest on these assertions:<\/span><\/p>\n

Democ\u00adra\u00adcy is not a tem\u00adpo\u00adrary or recent phe\u00adnom\u00ade\u00adnon, but a mode of human social behav\u00adiour that has exist\u00aded since the ear\u00adli\u00adest com\u00admu\u00adni\u00adties of \u201cmod\u00adern\u201d humans appeared, some\u00adwhere between six\u00adty and a hun\u00addred thou\u00adsand years ago, and which is in turn based on our roots among pro\u00adto-humans and our pri\u00admate ancestors.<\/span><\/p>\n

Democ\u00adra\u00adcy is an expres\u00adsion of fun\u00adda\u00admen\u00adtal ele\u00adments in human social psy\u00adchol\u00ado\u00adgy, and hence, not \u201ccul\u00adture-spe\u00adcif\u00adic\u201d or \u201cbelong\u00ading\u201d to any par\u00adtic\u00adu\u00adlar human cul\u00adture, eth\u00adnic group, or locality.<\/span><\/p>\n

Democ\u00adra\u00adcy is not an \u201cide\u00adol\u00ado\u00adgy\u201d co-equal and alter\u00adna\u00adtive to oth\u00ader \u201cpolit\u00adi\u00adcal sys\u00adtems\u201d, but is in fact sui gener\u00adis<\/em>, a mode of human behav\u00adiour fun\u00adda\u00admen\u00adtal\u00adly dif\u00adfer\u00adent from ide\u00adolo\u00adgies of pow\u00ader and rule.<\/span><\/p>\n

Democ\u00adra\u00adcy is not the prod\u00aduct of any sequence of \u201cstages\u201d in his\u00adto\u00adry, nor is it more or less nec\u00ades\u00adsary or desir\u00adable in any time or place. It is nei\u00adther the prod\u00aduct of a pseudo-\u201cevolution\u201d of human soci\u00adeties, nor the prod\u00aduct of par\u00adtic\u00adu\u00adlar modes of pro\u00adduc\u00adtion, eco\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal nich\u00ades, or con\u00adfig\u00adu\u00adra\u00adtions of population.<\/span><\/p>\n

Democ\u00adra\u00adcy is a mode of human social inter\u00adac\u00adtion that can be prac\u00adticed by any human group, of any size, with any type of tech\u00adnol\u00ado\u00adgy, and at any time or place.<\/span><\/p>\n

Democ\u00adra\u00adcy is a prod\u00aduct of human intel\u00adli\u00adgence and cre\u00adative imag\u00adi\u00adna\u00adtion, in the same way that tech\u00adnol\u00ado\u00adgy, art, and music are. These fields of human cre\u00adativ\u00adi\u00adty are the direct con\u00adse\u00adquences of human fac\u00adul\u00adties, not pas\u00adsive\u00adly deter\u00admined by envi\u00adron\u00adment. In oth\u00ader words, human sculp\u00adture in wood comes about because of a built-in need of humans, as con\u00adscious, think\u00ading, and self-aware beings, to manip\u00adu\u00adlate phys\u00adi\u00adcal objects for rep\u00adre\u00adsen\u00adta\u00adtion\u00adal and sym\u00adbol\u00adic pur\u00adpos\u00ades. It is not mere\u00adly a side-effect of the avail\u00adabil\u00adi\u00adty of wood. If wood is not avail\u00adable, then the impulse to carve will find anoth\u00ader object, such as bone, stone, clay, or even the human body itself. Sim\u00adi\u00adlar\u00adly, democ\u00adra\u00adcy is a prod\u00aduct of the pro\u00adfound\u00adest cre\u00adativ\u00adi\u00adty in human nature, the abil\u00adi\u00adty to grasp that oth\u00ader human beings are not mere\u00adly exter\u00adnal objects, but con\u00adscious beings, sim\u00adi\u00adlar and equal to one\u00adself. Con\u00adse\u00adquent\u00adly, democ\u00adra\u00adcy can\u00adnot be explained as the result of tem\u00adpo\u00adrary con\u00addi\u00adtions, such as pop\u00adu\u00adla\u00adtion den\u00adsi\u00adty, cli\u00admate, resource lim\u00adits, birthrates, or modes of pro\u00adduc\u00adtion, though these vari\u00adables may influ\u00adence its application.<\/span><\/p>\n

The pur\u00adpose of democ\u00adra\u00adcy is to pro\u00admote and pro\u00adtect the well-being of humans, while its oppo\u00adnent prin\u00adci\u00adple, crime (war\u00adfare, caste sys\u00adtems, hered\u00adi\u00adtary priv\u00adi\u00adlege, tyran\u00adny, aris\u00adtoc\u00adra\u00adcy, dic\u00adta\u00adtor\u00adship, theoc\u00adra\u00adcy, and total\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan ide\u00adol\u00ado\u00adgy) is patho\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal. Thus the rela\u00adtion\u00adship of democ\u00adra\u00adcy to the \u201cpolit\u00adi\u00adcal\u201d con\u00adcepts sub\u00adsumed in crime is sim\u00adi\u00adlar to that of the healthy organ\u00adism to infec\u00adtious dis\u00adease. The rela\u00adtion\u00adship is one of con\u00adstant strat\u00ade\u00adgy and counter-strat\u00ade\u00adgy, inno\u00adva\u00adtion and adap\u00adta\u00adtion, with the preda\u00adtors on human\u00adi\u00adty exploit\u00ading every nov\u00adel con\u00addi\u00adtion as an \u201copen\u00ading\u201d to estab\u00adlish their infec\u00adtion. Thus, polit\u00adi\u00adcal crime, embod\u00adied in caste, aris\u00adtoc\u00adra\u00adcy, or king\u00adship, is \u201cnor\u00admal\u201d and \u201cnat\u00adur\u00adal\u201d to human soci\u00adeties, in the same sense that infec\u00adtious dis\u00adease is endem\u00adic to it. That \u201cnor\u00admal\u00adcy\u201d does not mean that crime is either desir\u00adable, or that we should pas\u00adsive\u00adly tol\u00ader\u00adate it. Demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic thought and action con\u00adsti\u00adtute the prac\u00adti\u00adcal strat\u00ade\u00adgy for sur\u00adviv\u00ading the pathol\u00ado\u00adgy of tyran\u00adny, just as under\u00adstand\u00ading biol\u00ado\u00adgy and prac\u00adtic\u00ading clean\u00adli\u00adness are the prac\u00adti\u00adcal strat\u00ade\u00adgy for sur\u00adviv\u00ading the ever-vari\u00adant assaults from disease.<\/span><\/p>\n

With\u00adin a human com\u00admu\u00adni\u00adty, the pathol\u00ado\u00adgy of crime is man\u00adi\u00adfest in the ten\u00adden\u00adcy, desire, and abil\u00adi\u00adty of some human beings to manip\u00adu\u00adlate, dom\u00adi\u00adnate and con\u00adtrol oth\u00aders. This pathol\u00ado\u00adgy only occurs in dan\u00adger\u00adous lev\u00adels among a minor\u00adi\u00adty of human beings.<\/span><\/p>\n

The strate\u00adgies of this crim\u00adi\u00adnal minor\u00adi\u00adty are vari\u00adants and com\u00adbi\u00adna\u00adtions of vio\u00adlence, min\u00adion recruit\u00adment, intim\u00adi\u00adda\u00adtion, and decep\u00adtion. What dis\u00adtin\u00adguish\u00ades the behav\u00adiour of crim\u00adi\u00adnals from nor\u00admal humans is their con\u00adsis\u00adtent use of these meth\u00adods to achieve ends exclu\u00adsive\u00adly ben\u00ade\u00adfi\u00adcial to them\u00adselves. The crim\u00adi\u00adnal minor\u00adi\u00adty dis\u00adplay what psy\u00adchol\u00ado\u00adgists iden\u00adti\u00adfy as a \u201csocio\u00adpath\u00adic\u201d per\u00adson\u00adal\u00adi\u00adty. They con\u00adceive of oth\u00ader human beings as objects, and take plea\u00adsure in manip\u00adu\u00adlat\u00ading them and dis\u00adpos\u00ading of them, but feel no empa\u00adthy for them. They are aware that their vic\u00adtims are con\u00adstrained by con\u00adscience, by empa\u00adthy, and oth\u00ader social and eth\u00adi\u00adcal con\u00adsid\u00ader\u00ada\u00adtions, but they are not under any such con\u00adstraints them\u00adselves. As Mao-Zedong, the quin\u00adtes\u00adsen\u00adtial exam\u00adple of the sociopath, once wrote: \u201cOf course there are peo\u00adple and objects in the world, but they are all there only for me.\u201d The crim\u00adi\u00adnal minor\u00adi\u00adty thus regards the bulk of human beings as prey, and observes the weak\u00adness\u00ades of that prey with cool detach\u00adment. They eas\u00adi\u00adly antic\u00adi\u00adpate and pre\u00addict the behav\u00adiour of their vic\u00adtims, while the vic\u00adtims have great dif\u00adfi\u00adcul\u00adty in inter\u00adpret\u00ading or antic\u00adi\u00adpat\u00ading theirs.<\/span><\/p>\n

Democ\u00adra\u00adcy is depen\u00addent on the close\u00adly relat\u00aded val\u00adues of hon\u00adesty and fair\u00adness. These val\u00adues are not eas\u00adi\u00adly achieved. They require metic\u00adu\u00adlous and repeat\u00aded effort on the part of human beings to dis\u00adcern truth, and judge what action is fair to a mul\u00adti\u00adtude of indi\u00advid\u00adu\u00adals in a mul\u00adti\u00adtude of sit\u00adu\u00ada\u00adtions. It is not some\u00adthing that can be done effec\u00adtive\u00adly alone, but requires col\u00adlab\u00ado\u00adra\u00adtive and co-oper\u00ada\u00adtive actions. Since it depends for its suc\u00adcess on a close cor\u00adre\u00adspon\u00addence to real\u00adi\u00adty, options for action are con\u00adstrained. Crim\u00adi\u00adnals have no such con\u00adstraints. They can employ any strat\u00ade\u00adgy they chose, from a wide selec\u00adtion, none of them depen\u00addent on truth, con\u00adsis\u00adten\u00adcy, or fair\u00adness. Since real\u00adi\u00adty is not the con\u00adcern of the liar, any lie that serves the preda\u00adto\u00adry goal can be employed, and there are infi\u00adnite options in lying. Psy\u00adcho\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal manip\u00adu\u00adla\u00adtion and fraud are the most pow\u00ader\u00adful tools employed. Phys\u00adi\u00adcal force only sup\u00adple\u00adments them, and is usu\u00adal\u00adly sup\u00adplied by hench\u00admen or oth\u00ader psy\u00adcho\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal dependents.<\/span><\/p>\n

Dom\u00adi\u00adnance and tyran\u00adni\u00adcal pow\u00ader are fun\u00adda\u00admen\u00adtal\u00adly the same on all scales. A small-time con-artist bilk\u00ading elder\u00adly wid\u00adows of their sav\u00adings, and a Pres\u00adi\u00addent of the Unit\u00aded States bilk\u00ading 300,000,000 Amer\u00adi\u00adcans out of their sav\u00adings are the same type of per\u00adson\u00adal\u00adi\u00adty, employ\u00ading the same tech\u00adniques, to the same ends. Jim Jones, manip\u00adu\u00adlat\u00ading a hand\u00adful of fol\u00adlow\u00aders into abject obe\u00addi\u00adence and sui\u00adcide, and Mao Zedong, manip\u00adu\u00adlat\u00ading hun\u00addreds of mil\u00adlions into abject obe\u00addi\u00adence and sui\u00adcide, are the same per\u00adson, doing the same thing, with the same tech\u00adniques, for the same pur\u00adpos\u00ades. There is no dif\u00adfer\u00adence except the num\u00adbers of vic\u00adtims. This is true of all tyran\u00adny, from a sin\u00adgle abu\u00adsive hus\u00adband tor\u00adment\u00ading a wife and chil\u00addren, to a dic\u00adta\u00adtor run\u00adning a vast empire of hun\u00addreds of mil\u00adlions, the motives, means and ends are iden\u00adti\u00adcal. They are one sin\u00adgle phe\u00adnom\u00ade\u00adnon. Con\u00adse\u00adquent\u00adly, the demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic prin\u00adci\u00adple that oppos\u00ades tyran\u00adny is a sin\u00adgle phe\u00adnom\u00ade\u00adnon, poten\u00adtial\u00adly adjustable to any scale<\/span><\/p>\n

\u201c<\/span>Ide\u00adolo\u00adgies\u201d or \u201cbeliefs\u201d pro\u00adclaimed by crim\u00adi\u00adnals are mere emp\u00adty noise. They are the \u201csto\u00adry\u201d man\u00adu\u00adfac\u00adtured by the con-artist, strict\u00adly for the con\u00adsump\u00adtion of the cred\u00adu\u00adlous vic\u00adtim. Attempts by the vic\u00adtims to explain or pre\u00addict the behav\u00adiour of crim\u00adi\u00adnals in terms of their \u201cval\u00adues\u201d or on the basis of the abstract ideas and procla\u00adma\u00adtions in their ide\u00adolo\u00adgies, are fool\u00adish. The more one does this, the more crim\u00adi\u00adnals will exploit this creduli\u00adty strategically.<\/span><\/p>\n

Crime, man\u00adi\u00adfest\u00aded in pur\u00adport\u00aded \u201csocial sys\u00adtems\u201d, is eas\u00adi\u00adly mod\u00adi\u00adfied in details, and trans\u00adfered or inher\u00adit\u00aded from one gen\u00ader\u00ada\u00adtion of crim\u00adi\u00adnals to anoth\u00ader. Each such trans\u00adfer con\u00adtributes to the \u201cendem\u00adic\u201d nature of the crime. For exam\u00adple, con\u00adsid\u00ader one of the most com\u00admon cas\u00ades of manip\u00adu\u00adla\u00adtive fraud: the asser\u00adtion that some humans are either des\u00adtined or espe\u00adcial\u00adly fit to rule oth\u00aders, by rea\u00adson of their birth in a par\u00adtic\u00adu\u00adlar lin\u00adeage or clan. It may take many gen\u00ader\u00ada\u00adtions of rep\u00ade\u00adti\u00adtion and manip\u00adu\u00adla\u00adtion to gain accep\u00adtance for this lie. But once accept\u00aded, the lie acquires the tremen\u00addous pow\u00ader of per\u00adceived nor\u00admal\u00adcy. Sub\u00adse\u00adquent liars need only per\u00adform to a min\u00adi\u00admum lev\u00adel of com\u00adpe\u00adtence to main\u00adtain the fraud. Soci\u00adeties that have expe\u00adri\u00adenced gen\u00ader\u00ada\u00adtions of aris\u00adtoc\u00adra\u00adcy or king\u00adship, no mat\u00adter how debil\u00adi\u00adtat\u00ading or destruc\u00adtive, come to see the dis\u00adease as inher\u00adent, inevitable, and pre\u00ador\u00addained. They enter a psy\u00adcho\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal con\u00addi\u00adtion sim\u00adi\u00adlar to that of abused spous\u00ades, who, trapped in mis\u00adplaced loy\u00adal\u00adty, can\u00adnot see any alter\u00adna\u00adtive to sub\u00admis\u00adsion to the abuser. Aris\u00adtoc\u00adra\u00adcies that have gained accep\u00adtance in this way are some\u00adtimes dis\u00adlodged by oth\u00ader clans or lin\u00adeages, who sim\u00adply usurp the same role. By this time, the con\u00adcept of a \u201csupe\u00adri\u00ador\u201d lin\u00adeage does not even need to be based on real con\u00adti\u00adnu\u00adity. A \u201csuper-lie\u201d can ride pig\u00adgy-back on the orig\u00adi\u00adnal lie, with\u00adout strain\u00ading the creduli\u00adty of the vic\u00adtims. Demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic analy\u00adsis seeks to iden\u00adti\u00adfy and dis\u00adcred\u00adit the under\u00adly\u00ading lies, rather than just to com\u00adbat par\u00adtic\u00adu\u00adlar liars and par\u00adtic\u00adu\u00adlar tyrants.<\/span><\/p>\n

The careers of spe\u00adcif\u00adic crim\u00adi\u00adnals are facil\u00adi\u00adtat\u00aded by the exis\u00adtence of a back\u00adground of gen\u00ader\u00adal\u00adly accept\u00aded lies. It is there\u00adfore in the inter\u00adest of all crim\u00adi\u00adnals to encour\u00adage and per\u00adpet\u00adu\u00adate these gen\u00ader\u00adal lies, as well as the spe\u00adcif\u00adic lies that they tell in their course of manip\u00adu\u00adlat\u00ading spe\u00adcif\u00adic vic\u00adtims. Among these gen\u00ader\u00adal lies is the notion that what crim\u00adi\u00adnals do, in defraud\u00ading, manip\u00adu\u00adlat\u00ading, bul\u00adly\u00ading, and exploit\u00ading their vic\u00adtims, is ben\u00ade\u00adfi\u00adcial to human beings in some neb\u00adu\u00adlous col\u00adlec\u00adtive fash\u00adion. Through\u00adout his\u00adto\u00adry, we have been bom\u00adbard\u00aded by asser\u00adtions that aris\u00adtoc\u00adra\u00adcy, king\u00adship, tyran\u00adny, and caste hier\u00adar\u00adchies exist for the pur\u00adpose of pro\u00admot\u00ading the well-being of the peo\u00adple sub\u00adject\u00aded to them, or that they came into being because they pro\u00adduced ben\u00ade\u00adfi\u00adcial results for a major\u00adi\u00adty, or because they are nec\u00ades\u00adsary for human \u201cprogress\u201d. There is absolute\u00adly no truth to these asser\u00adtions. One might as read\u00adi\u00adly pro\u00adclaim that the Black Death came into being because the peo\u00adple of the Mid\u00addle Ages need\u00aded it to improve their soci\u00adety, or that plague bacili were need\u00aded by our bod\u00adies to bet\u00adter direct and secure our health. But these gen\u00ader\u00adal lies are wide\u00adly believed, and form the basis of much of our his\u00adtor\u00adi\u00adcal lit\u00ader\u00ada\u00adture and polit\u00adi\u00adcal discourse.<\/span><\/p>\n

Now, let\u2019s look at the first of these asser\u00adtions in detail.<\/span><\/p>\n

I \u2014 Democ\u00adra\u00adcy is not a tem\u00adpo\u00adrary or recent phe\u00adnom\u00ade\u00adnon, but a mode of human social behav\u00adiour that has exist\u00aded since the ear\u00adli\u00adest com\u00admu\u00adni\u00adties of \u201cmod\u00adern\u201d humans appeared, some\u00adwhere between six\u00adty and a hun\u00addred thou\u00adsand years ago, and which is in turn based on our roots among pro\u00adto-humans and our pri\u00admate ancestors.<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n

There is now a con\u00adsid\u00ader\u00adable body of work on the social behav\u00adiour of pri\u00admates and ear\u00adly humans. Behav\u00adiours that were once con\u00adsid\u00adered to be unique to mod\u00adern humans, or the prod\u00aduct of recent human cul\u00adtures, have been observed among our pri\u00admate rel\u00ada\u00adtives. Friend\u00adship, love, hate, jeal\u00adousy, rage, co-oper\u00ada\u00adtion, altru\u00adism, alliances, tac\u00adti\u00adcal decep\u00adtion, reci\u00adprocity, group sol\u00adi\u00addar\u00adi\u00adty, war\u00adfare, mourn\u00ading, play \u2014 vir\u00adtu\u00adal\u00adly the entire panoply of feel\u00adings and behav\u00adiour that we iden\u00adti\u00adfy as \u201chuman\u201d \u2014 have been unam\u00adbigu\u00adous\u00adly observed among our clos\u00adest bio\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal rel\u00ada\u00adtives. They have also been observed among some oth\u00ader ani\u00admals, such as ceta\u00adtians (orcas, dol\u00adphins and whales). We have been made aware of this by a half cen\u00adtu\u00adry of metic\u00adu\u00adlous sci\u00aden\u00adtif\u00adic inves\u00adti\u00adga\u00adtion. The observers had to over\u00adcome con\u00adven\u00adtion\u00adal assump\u00adtions that non-human ani\u00admals were mechan\u00adi\u00adcal automa\u00adtons. It is now accept\u00aded that many ele\u00adments of human behav\u00adiour and soci\u00adety came to us from our com\u00admon ances\u00adtors. It is also clear that some ele\u00adments have tak\u00aden a dis\u00adtinc\u00adtive course in our species.<\/span><\/p>\n

Once they had absorbed the con\u00adcept that our pri\u00admate rel\u00ada\u00adtives have gen\u00aduine cul\u00adtures, sci\u00aden\u00adtists became puz\u00adzled by one sig\u00adnif\u00adi\u00adcant con\u00adtrast between pri\u00admate soci\u00adeties and the soci\u00adeties of hunter-gath\u00ader\u00aders that we know con\u00adsti\u00adtut\u00aded the human com\u00admu\u00adni\u00adty for a peri\u00adod of tens of thou\u00adsands of years before record\u00aded history.<\/span><\/p>\n

The range of behav\u00adiour of indi\u00advid\u00adu\u00adals in a troop of chim\u00adpanzees is per\u00adfect\u00adly rec\u00adog\u00adniz\u00adable to us. How\u00adev\u00ader, chim\u00adpanzee soci\u00adety is extreme\u00adly hier\u00adar\u00adchi\u00adcal, with alpha-males rul\u00ading over oth\u00aders through intim\u00adi\u00adda\u00adtion. It is by no means a tran\u00adquil hier\u00adar\u00adchy. Rul\u00ading chimps climb to the top by schem\u00ading, bul\u00adly\u00ading, and vio\u00adlence. Those at the acme of pow\u00ader are often deposed by con\u00adspir\u00ada\u00adcies among less\u00ader-ranked rivals. Mur\u00adder, rape, vio\u00adlent beat\u00adings, exile, and ostracism are com\u00admon\u00adplace. Nor is there any evi\u00addence that the troop as a whole ben\u00ade\u00adfits from the extra priv\u00adi\u00adleges (large\u00adly sex\u00adu\u00adal) that the dom\u00adi\u00adnant claim. Much ener\u00adgy that could have gone to effi\u00adcient food gath\u00ader\u00ading, or to com\u00admon defense against rival troops or preda\u00adtors, is wast\u00aded in inter\u00adnal strife. Chim\u00adpanzee soci\u00adeties are often sapped, desta\u00adbi\u00adlized, and torn apart by the antics of dom\u00adi\u00adnance-seek\u00aders. As in human soci\u00adeties, vio\u00adlent dom\u00adi\u00adnance is sought by only a minor\u00adi\u00adty of indi\u00advid\u00adu\u00adals. The same soci\u00adeties abound in exam\u00adples of equal col\u00adlab\u00ado\u00adra\u00adtion, friend\u00adship, and con\u00advivi\u00adal\u00adi\u00adty. Chim\u00adpanzee soci\u00adeties attempt, as best they can, to lim\u00adit the pow\u00ader of dom\u00adi\u00adnant indi\u00advid\u00adu\u00adals, by com\u00adbin\u00ading into tem\u00adpo\u00adrary alliances to defy or depose them. Unfor\u00adtu\u00adnate\u00adly, such alliances depend on care\u00adful\u00adly co-ordi\u00adnat\u00aded simul\u00adta\u00adne\u00adous dis\u00adobe\u00addi\u00adence, car\u00adried out at exact\u00adly the right moment. Such oppor\u00adtu\u00adni\u00adties and co-ordi\u00adna\u00adtion are rarely pos\u00adsi\u00adble with\u00adout advance plan\u00adning, which Chim\u00adpanzees don\u2019t seem to be able to man\u00adage. Con\u00adse\u00adquent\u00adly, most chim\u00adpanzees live under the shad\u00adow of tyran\u00adny. The psy\u00adcho\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal and phys\u00adi\u00adcal cost on the aver\u00adage, low-sta\u00adtus chim\u00adpanzee is no dif\u00adfer\u00adent from the costs inflict\u00aded on humans sub\u00adject\u00aded to tyranny.<\/span><\/p>\n

Over the last two mil\u00adlion years, a num\u00adber of hominid species appear in the fos\u00adsil record. They are clear\u00adly descend\u00aded from the same group of pri\u00admates that is ances\u00adtral to chim\u00adpanzees, bono\u00adbos, and goril\u00adlas, to whom we have a very close genet\u00adic and phys\u00adi\u00ado\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal resem\u00adblance. Their behav\u00adiour, how\u00adev\u00ader showed pro\u00adgres\u00adsive diver\u00adgence from their rel\u00ada\u00adtives. Chim\u00adpanzees occa\u00adsion\u00adal\u00adly use tools, for exam\u00adple, and occa\u00adsion\u00adal\u00adly fab\u00adri\u00adcat\u00aded them, but the ancient hominids start\u00aded to use them much more often and much more delib\u00ader\u00adate\u00adly. Chimps, bono\u00adbos and goril\u00adlas remained con\u00adfined to a nar\u00adrow range of envi\u00adron\u00adments in the trop\u00adi\u00adcal forests of Africa, while hominids moved into a vari\u00adety of new envi\u00adron\u00adments. In fact, they spread out of Africa to cov\u00ader a sig\u00adnif\u00adi\u00adcant por\u00adtion of the globe, albeit in very small num\u00adbers and den\u00adsi\u00adty. Some\u00adhow, hominids lost the nor\u00admal ani\u00admal ter\u00adror of fire, and at some point began to use it to their own ends.<\/span><\/p>\n

At some time, rough\u00adly esti\u00admat\u00aded at about 100,000 years ago, hominids appeared on the scene who can be described as mod\u00adern humans. Phys\u00adi\u00ado\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly, they were our species. Oth\u00ader vari\u00adeties of hominids seem to have been rapid\u00adly replaced by them. As far as we can tell, our species has had the same basic capac\u00adi\u00adties and pro\u00adcliv\u00adi\u00adties from then until now. There is no rea\u00adson to believe that a child plucked from a tribe of mam\u00admoth hunters of thir\u00adty thou\u00adsand years ago could not suc\u00adcess\u00adful\u00adly go through grade school, high school and uni\u00adver\u00adsi\u00adty, and earn a degree in social anthro\u00adpol\u00ado\u00adgy. Our ear\u00adli\u00adest evi\u00addence of this kind of \u201cmod\u00adern human\u201d is accom\u00adpa\u00adnied by signs of sym\u00adbol\u00adic and artis\u00adtic activ\u00adi\u00adties. Some ear\u00adly human camp\u00adsites, for exam\u00adple, con\u00adtain large quan\u00adti\u00adties of care\u00adful\u00adly worked neck\u00adlace beads, very fine\u00adly craft\u00aded and requir\u00ading a huge invest\u00adment in labour and time, but with\u00adout any dis\u00adcernible \u201csur\u00advival\u201d val\u00adue. Caves and rock-faces in many loca\u00adtions are cov\u00adered with paint\u00aded art, dat\u00ading from many thou\u00adsands of years ago. Many, such as those at Alta Mira, in the Pyre\u00adnees, are breath\u00adtak\u00ading\u00adly beau\u00adti\u00adful. We know, from hunt\u00ading-and-gath\u00ader\u00ading peo\u00adples who have sur\u00advived into his\u00adtor\u00adi\u00adcal times, that these paint\u00adings are replete with mean\u00ading\u00adful sym\u00adbol\u00adism, and rep\u00adre\u00adsent com\u00adplex ideas. We also know, from the exam\u00adple of many such soci\u00adeties, that rock art must have been accom\u00adpa\u00adnied by oth\u00ader forms of aes\u00adthet\u00adic expres\u00adsion, in wood, bark, and ani\u00admal bi-prod\u00aducts, in dress, in body dec\u00ado\u00adra\u00adtion, in music, in dance. It is a plau\u00adsi\u00adble infer\u00adence that lan\u00adguage, in rough\u00adly the way we know and use it, appeared some\u00adtime around the same time as these artis\u00adtic cre\u00adations, or at least it acquired a greater degree of refine\u00adment. It is hard to see how all this sym\u00adbol\u00adic and artis\u00adtic activ\u00adi\u00adty could exist with\u00adout lan\u00adguage, and the skele\u00adtal remains of mod\u00adern humans have phys\u00adi\u00ado\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal fea\u00adtures that look like they specif\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly facil\u00adi\u00adtate lan\u00adguage in var\u00adi\u00adous ways.<\/span><\/p>\n

After mod\u00adern humans appeared, and scat\u00adtered across the Earth, it appears that we lived in small bands engaged in hunt\u00ading ani\u00admals and gath\u00ader\u00ading wild foods. This lifestyle occu\u00adpied about nine\u00adty per\u00adcent of our his\u00adto\u00adry. Now, we have many exam\u00adples of peo\u00adple who have main\u00adtained this lifestyle into recent times, or even into the present. Most of these soci\u00adeties have been stud\u00adied in great detail, so we have some idea how they func\u00adtion polit\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly. These soci\u00adeties dif\u00adfer from our ape rel\u00ada\u00adtives in one very dra\u00admat\u00adic way. They are not dom\u00adi\u00adnat\u00aded by vio\u00adlent alpha males, they do not have rigid hier\u00adar\u00adchies, and they are not near\u00adly as inter\u00adnal\u00adly vio\u00adlent. They are not with\u00adout vio\u00adlence. In fact, sta\u00adtis\u00adti\u00adcal\u00adly, they have more cas\u00ades of assault and mur\u00adder, per capi\u00adta, than we find in mod\u00adern, urban soci\u00adeties. How\u00adev\u00ader, vio\u00adlence remains excep\u00adtion\u00adal behav\u00adiour among them, while it is dai\u00adly and com\u00admon\u00adplace among oth\u00ader pri\u00admates. If the sur\u00adviv\u00ading hunter-gath\u00ader\u00ader soci\u00adeties that we are famil\u00adiar with are any\u00adthing like the soci\u00adeties that exist\u00aded among humans since we became rec\u00adog\u00adniz\u00adable as a species, then it appears that, in becom\u00ading mod\u00adern humans, some\u00adthing hap\u00adpened that made us con\u00adsid\u00ader\u00adably less vio\u00adlent, and some\u00adthing hap\u00adpened that made us less hierarchical.<\/span><\/p>\n

Hunter-gath\u00ader\u00ader soci\u00adeties have con\u00adsis\u00adtent\u00adly been described by anthro\u00adpol\u00ado\u00adgists as \u201cegal\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan\u201d, and while this descrip\u00adtion can be mis\u00adlead\u00ading unless it is qual\u00adi\u00adfied in pre\u00adcise ways, it seems like\u00adly that tens of thou\u00adsands of years of human his\u00adto\u00adry were char\u00adac\u00adter\u00adized by small com\u00admu\u00adni\u00adties of human beings who man\u00adaged their affairs by mutu\u00adal con\u00adsent, arbi\u00adtra\u00adtion, con\u00adsen\u00adsus, or major\u00adi\u00adty vote in delib\u00ader\u00ada\u00adtive coun\u00adcils. These tech\u00adniques have been observed in hun\u00addreds of small soci\u00adeties, in every region of the world [see exam\u00adples cit\u00aded in Muhlberg\u00ader &<\/span> Paine, Democ\u00adra\u00adcy\u2019s Place in World His\u00adto\u00adry<\/em>]. They are all com\u00adpo\u00adnents of demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic orga\u00adni\u00adza\u00adtion, and many observers have noticed that the details of coun\u00adcil-based pol\u00adi\u00adtics in \u201cprim\u00adi\u00adtive\u201d soci\u00adeties are as sophis\u00adti\u00adcat\u00aded \u2014 and as prac\u00adti\u00adcal\u00adly effec\u00adtive \u2014 as the activ\u00adi\u00adties in the par\u00adlia\u00adments of advanced indus\u00adtri\u00adal nations. The same com\u00adpro\u00admis\u00ades, coali\u00adtions, quid-pro-quos and con\u00adflict-avoid\u00adance strate\u00adgies are employed, whether in a hunt\u00ading band decid\u00ading whether to move camp up the riv\u00ader to anoth\u00ader bluff, or among Toron\u00adto\u00adni\u00adans decid\u00ading whether or not to expand a sub\u00adway sys\u00adtem. The inter\u00adnal affairs of such pre\u00adhis\u00adtoric com\u00admu\u00adni\u00adties can be described as \u201cpro\u00adto-demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic\u201d, because deci\u00adsions were made by con\u00adsen\u00adsus or con\u00adcil\u00adiar debate among peo\u00adple who treat\u00aded each oth\u00ader, at least in some sense, as equals. If the sur\u00adviv\u00ading hunter-gath\u00ader\u00ader soci\u00adeties that we are famil\u00adiar with are any\u00adthing like the soci\u00adeties that exist\u00aded among humans since we became rec\u00adog\u00adniz\u00adable as a species, then we have a his\u00adto\u00adry of tens of thou\u00adsands of years of pro\u00adto-demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic gov\u00adern\u00adment as a com\u00admon heritage.<\/span><\/p>\n

The equal\u00adi\u00adty may have been more than in for\u00admal deci\u00adsion-mak\u00ading. Observers of a vari\u00adety of such cul\u00adtures have not\u00aded that an \u201cegal\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan ethos\u201d per\u00advades such soci\u00adeties, far beyond the scope of polit\u00adi\u00adcal deci\u00adsion-mak\u00ading. Social cus\u00adtoms are in place that firm\u00adly dis\u00adcour\u00adage the psy\u00adcho\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal dom\u00adi\u00adnance of one per\u00adson over oth\u00aders. Boast\u00ading is dis\u00adcour\u00adaged, and habit\u00adu\u00adal\u00adly pugna\u00adcious or vio\u00adlent peo\u00adple are shunned. Claims to spe\u00adcial priv\u00adi\u00adlege or pres\u00adtige are rou\u00adtine\u00adly deflat\u00aded by ridicule. This kind of \u201clev\u00adel\u00ading\u201d pres\u00adsure is a notable ele\u00adment of groups that must sur\u00advive extreme con\u00addi\u00adtions, such as the high arc\u00adtic or dri\u00adest deserts, where the bossi\u00adness or tyran\u00adny of a dom\u00adi\u00adnant indi\u00advid\u00adual will quick\u00adly endan\u00adger the sur\u00advival of the group.<\/span><\/p>\n

Christo\u00adpher Boehm is an anthro\u00adpol\u00ado\u00adgist who has stud\u00adied many aspects of egal\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan behav\u00adiour from an evo\u00adlu\u00adtion\u00adary stand\u00adpoint. He notes that:<\/span><\/p>\n

All nomadic for\u00adagers are egal\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan, a pat\u00adtern that makes the adult males, and some\u00adtimes also the females, into equals as house\u00adhold heads. They are polit\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly egal\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan to the degree that named lead\u00ader\u00adship roles are lack\u00ading or devoid of author\u00adi\u00adty, sta\u00adtus dif\u00adfer\u00adences among polit\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly autonomous house\u00adhold heads are mut\u00aded, and indi\u00advid\u00adu\u00adals who try to influ\u00adence group deci\u00adsions must do so very cir\u00adcum\u00adspect\u00adly. The guid\u00adance mech\u00ada\u00adnism for this delib\u00ader\u00adate behav\u00adior is an egal\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan ethos that involves a set of indige\u00adnous atti\u00adtudes that make for strong val\u00adu\u00ada\u00adtion of per\u00adson\u00adal auton\u00ado\u00admy of adults.These val\u00adues help gen\u00ader\u00adate group hos\u00adtil\u00adi\u00adty toward any indi\u00advid\u00adual who even attempts to assume a seri\u00adous role of author\u00adi\u00adty in the band, let alone bald\u00adly tries to coerce oth\u00ader adults. Alpha-male types are not allowed to flour\u00adish, even though the ten\u00adden\u00adcy to engage in sta\u00adtus rival\u00adry and seek dom\u00adi\u00adnance per\u00adsists and can still be expressed with\u00adin care\u00adful\u00adly cir\u00adcum\u00adscribed lim\u00adits.<\/em> [1]<\/span><\/p>\n

Since the pio\u00adneer\u00ading stud\u00adies of the Dobe !Kung of south\u00adern Africa, a con\u00adsid\u00ader\u00adable amount of effort has been made to study the dynam\u00adics of such egal\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan behav\u00adiour. In the begin\u00adning, the inter\u00adpre\u00adta\u00adtions of these anthro\u00adpo\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal obser\u00adva\u00adtions where undu\u00adly influ\u00adenced by dis\u00adtort\u00ading \u201cnoise fac\u00adtors\u201d. One such mis\u00adlead\u00ading idea was the Rousseau-an day\u00addream of a utopi\u00adan \u201cnat\u00adur\u00adal man\u201d, which need\u00aded lit\u00adtle encour\u00adage\u00adment to get out of hand. Anoth\u00ader was the influ\u00adence of the pseu\u00addo-egal\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan pre\u00adten\u00adsions of var\u00adi\u00adous total\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan polit\u00adi\u00adcal philoso\u00adphies. More than one anthro\u00adpol\u00ado\u00adgist was inclined to twist the pro\u00adfound\u00adly indi\u00advid\u00adu\u00adal\u00adist soci\u00adeties of hunter-gath\u00ader\u00aders into the mould of the com\u00admunes and col\u00adlec\u00adtives which total\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan philoso\u00adphers envi\u00adsioned, in their pur\u00adsuit of the exact oppo\u00adsite. The prop\u00ader place and func\u00adtion of \u201cshar\u00ading\u201d was not under\u00adstood by peo\u00adple to whom the word has always been a polit\u00adi\u00adcal or reli\u00adgious slo\u00adgan, rather than a prac\u00adti\u00adcal con\u00adcept. There was also con\u00adsid\u00ader\u00adable con\u00adfu\u00adsion of \u201cegal\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan\u00adism\u201d with \u201cuni\u00adfor\u00admi\u00adty\u201d.<\/span><\/p>\n

A sub\u00adtler and more clear-head\u00aded exam\u00adi\u00adna\u00adtion of hunter-gath\u00ader\u00ader soci\u00adeties shows that they are not some kind of undif\u00adfer\u00aden\u00adti\u00adat\u00aded col\u00adlec\u00adtive mush. Hunter-gath\u00ader\u00ader soci\u00adeties prac\u00adtice shar\u00ading of some things, for spe\u00adcif\u00adic rea\u00adsons, and indi\u00advid\u00adual own\u00ader\u00adship of oth\u00ader things, with both cat\u00ade\u00adgories clear\u00adly dis\u00adtin\u00adguished. Shar\u00ading is invari\u00adably tied to risk-reduc\u00adtion in obtain\u00ading high\u00adly vari\u00adable resources. It makes more sense to cus\u00adtom\u00adar\u00adi\u00adly share the meat of a hunt\u00aded moose, since such a wind\u00adfall may not pre\u00addictably come your way, and you will soon enough be glad when anoth\u00ader hunter shares with you. Cul\u00adtur\u00adal anthro\u00adpol\u00ado\u00adgists now have a clear\u00ader grasp of these cus\u00adtoms, and no longer attribute a state of mys\u00adti\u00adcal col\u00adlec\u00adtivism to such soci\u00adeties, but a ghost of this mis\u00adun\u00adder\u00adstand\u00ading still haunts his\u00adto\u00adri\u00adans, econ\u00ado\u00admists, and soci\u00adol\u00ado\u00adgists. Less well under\u00adstood, even by anthro\u00adpol\u00ado\u00adgists, is that almost all human groups fall back on this pat\u00adtern on an infor\u00admal basis, among friends, rel\u00ada\u00adtives, or in small com\u00admu\u00adni\u00adties, what\u00adev\u00ader the struc\u00adture of their larg\u00ader polit\u00adi\u00adcal organizations.<\/span><\/p>\n

Egal\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan\u00adism is unre\u00adlat\u00aded to \u201ccol\u00adlec\u00adtivism\u201d. In fact, it is its oppo\u00adsite. Peo\u00adple in hunt\u00ading bands remain pro\u00adfound\u00adly indi\u00advid\u00adual. They main\u00adtain the clear under\u00adstand\u00ading, lost on many mod\u00adern intel\u00adlec\u00adtu\u00adals, that egal\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan\u00adism and indi\u00advid\u00adu\u00adal\u00adism are cor\u00adrel\u00ada\u00adtive, com\u00adpli\u00admen\u00adta\u00adry, and tight\u00adly-linked con\u00adcepts. The essence of the polit\u00adi\u00adcal arrange\u00adments of such an egal\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan group is that each per\u00adson, or at least each adult, or each head of a house\u00adhold, is sov\u00ader\u00adeign. Boast\u00adful\u00adness and high-hand\u00aded man\u00adners are derid\u00aded and dis\u00adcour\u00adaged, because they are seen as inevitably lead\u00ading to one per\u00adson vio\u00adlat\u00ading the sov\u00ader\u00adeign\u00adty of anoth\u00ader. This is why so many Euro\u00adpeans, encoun\u00adter\u00ading rel\u00ada\u00adtive\u00adly egal\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan com\u00admu\u00adni\u00adties for the first time, were con\u00adfused by what struck them as inor\u00addi\u00adnate pride among indi\u00advid\u00adu\u00adals, and report\u00aded with aston\u00adish\u00adment that \u201cthey each seemed to think him\u00adself a king\u201d, or sim\u00adi\u00adlar obser\u00adva\u00adtions. They were equal\u00adly aston\u00adished by delib\u00ader\u00ada\u00adtive coun\u00adcils in which any tribesman spoke their mind with con\u00adfi\u00addence, with coun\u00adcils in which women par\u00adtic\u00adi\u00adpat\u00aded, or coun\u00adcils in which women alone exer\u00adcised pow\u00ader. Such things were lost in the shad\u00adows of their own his\u00adto\u00adry, but they did not know this.<\/span><\/p>\n

Close exam\u00adi\u00adna\u00adtion of egal\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan soci\u00adeties also reveals that they do not involve a uni\u00adfor\u00admi\u00adty of pow\u00ader, of pres\u00adtige, of wealth, or of influ\u00adence. Indi\u00advid\u00adual vari\u00ada\u00adtions of char\u00adac\u00adter and cir\u00adcum\u00adstance gen\u00ader\u00adate many inequal\u00adi\u00adties. An observ\u00ader accus\u00adtomed to think\u00ading of wealth in terms of bank accounts and lux\u00adu\u00adry cars may not imme\u00addi\u00adate\u00adly per\u00adceive an extra-nice gourd or a chick\u00aden as con\u00adspic\u00adu\u00adous wealth, but they may be so. Only some\u00adone who has grown up with them can see that one dog-sled team may be as dif\u00adfer\u00adent from anoth\u00ader as a Lotus Elise 340R<\/span> is dif\u00adfer\u00adent from a Hyundai Accent. Small com\u00admu\u00adni\u00adties, no mat\u00adter how egal\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan, exhib\u00adit a maze of pres\u00adtige con\u00adflicts based on fam\u00adi\u00adly, rep\u00adu\u00adta\u00adtion, access to cer\u00ade\u00admo\u00adni\u00adal objects, expe\u00adri\u00adence, phys\u00adi\u00adcal prowess, skills, or imag\u00adined access to mag\u00adic. Pow\u00ader and dom\u00adi\u00adnance can be exer\u00adcis\u00ades just as effec\u00adtive\u00adly through super\u00adnat\u00adur\u00adal beliefs as through vis\u00adi\u00adble wealth or phys\u00adi\u00adcal strength. Even when deci\u00adsions are strict\u00adly depen\u00addent on a coun\u00adcil of equals, those who are clever or elo\u00adquent clear\u00adly have the advan\u00adtage over those who are not, and may effec\u00adtive\u00adly pro\u00adpel deci\u00adsions in the direc\u00adtion of their own interests.<\/span><\/p>\n

I noticed this very dis\u00adtinct\u00adly, when I once attend\u00aded a meet\u00ading of the local Green Par\u00adty. The orga\u00adniz\u00aders of the meet\u00ading made a big deal about how their \u201ccon\u00adsen\u00adsus-based\u201d orga\u00adni\u00adza\u00adtion was supe\u00adri\u00ador to \u201ctra\u00addi\u00adtion\u00adal con\u00adfronta\u00adtion\u00adal democ\u00adra\u00adcy\u201d. In place of Robert\u2019s Rules of Order, it fea\u00adtured a capri\u00adcious man\u00adage\u00adment of the meet\u00ading by an obvi\u00adous alpha-dom\u00adi\u00adnant \u201cfacil\u00adi\u00adta\u00adtor\u201d who was high\u00adly skilled at manip\u00adu\u00adlat\u00ading the dis\u00adcus\u00adsion in such a way that con\u00adtrary opin\u00adions were sup\u00adpressed or ignored, and that his own agen\u00adda would be served. Instead of a secret bal\u00adlot, or even vot\u00ading by a show of hands, this \u201cfacil\u00adi\u00adta\u00adtor\u201d got to arbi\u00adtrar\u00adi\u00adly decide what the \u201ccon\u00adsen\u00adsus\u201d was. It just hap\u00adpened to be the same as his own view\u00adpoint, and just hap\u00adpened to be the only view\u00adpoint allowed much expres\u00adsion. I soon came to the con\u00adclu\u00adsion that this par\u00adtic\u00adu\u00adlar orga\u00adniz\u00ader was hos\u00adtile to \u201ctra\u00addi\u00adtion\u00adal con\u00adfronta\u00adtion\u00adal democ\u00adra\u00adcy\u201d because it pos\u00adsessed safe\u00adguards that pro\u00adtect\u00aded the rights of indi\u00advid\u00adu\u00adals, and ham\u00adpered the schemes of \u201clead\u00aders\u201d and oligarchs.<\/span><\/p>\n

Even when there is no such decep\u00adtion prac\u00adticed, the quick-wit\u00adted and glib are like\u00adly to get their way in an infor\u00admal delib\u00ader\u00ada\u00adtive coun\u00adcil, so every cus\u00adtom\u00adary safe\u00adguard that lev\u00adels the play\u00ading field can be cru\u00adcial. It is these safe\u00adguards, both for\u00admal and infor\u00admal, that give us the key to under\u00adstand\u00ading the \u201cegal\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan ethos\u201d that prob\u00ada\u00adbly char\u00adac\u00adter\u00adized our long his\u00adto\u00adry as hunters and gath\u00ader\u00aders. It had noth\u00ading to do with cos\u00admic har\u00admo\u00adny. The egal\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan ethos did not exist because peo\u00adple were undif\u00adfer\u00aden\u00adti\u00adat\u00aded, or equal in pow\u00ader. It exist\u00aded because peo\u00adple were unequal in poten\u00adtial pow\u00ader. The pur\u00adpose of the egal\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan ethos was to pro\u00adtect the auton\u00ado\u00admy of indi\u00advid\u00adu\u00adals from the poten\u00adtial threat from unavoid\u00adable advan\u00adtages and inequalities.<\/span><\/p>\n

For exam\u00adple, It is a good thing that some\u00adone is a skill\u00adful hunter, because it brings meat to the table for all, but every\u00adone under\u00adstands how easy it is for the skill\u00adful hunter to start lord\u00ading it over oth\u00aders, erod\u00ading their effec\u00adtive polit\u00adi\u00adcal sov\u00ader\u00adeign\u00adty. In the tight per\u00adson\u00adal inter\u00adac\u00adtions and social prox\u00adim\u00adi\u00adty of a hunt\u00ading band, the best way to deal with this poten\u00adtial dan\u00adger is to nip boast\u00ading and swag\u00adger\u00ading behav\u00adiour in the bud, with ridicule. If it per\u00adsists, more pow\u00ader\u00adful social sanc\u00adtions are employed. Egal\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan soci\u00adeties always face the pos\u00adsi\u00adbil\u00adi\u00adty of suc\u00adcumb\u00ading to tyran\u00adny, but counter that pos\u00adsi\u00adbil\u00adi\u00adty with pro\u00adphy\u00adlac\u00adtic cus\u00adtoms, which act to head off poten\u00adtial tyrants. If we char\u00adac\u00adter\u00adize the polit\u00adi\u00adcal orga\u00adni\u00adza\u00adtion of the first eighty or nine\u00adty thou\u00adsand years of our species\u2019 exis\u00adtence as \u201cpro\u00adto-demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic\u201d, then it is in recog\u00adni\u00adtion of the fact that tyran\u00adny and aris\u00adtoc\u00adra\u00adcy were always pos\u00adsi\u00adble in this peri\u00adod. We can deduce the pres\u00adence of dis\u00adease organ\u00adisms from the pres\u00adence of the appro\u00adpri\u00adate anti\u00adbod\u00adies. We can nev\u00ader know with what fre\u00adquen\u00adcy those pro\u00adto-demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic insti\u00adtu\u00adtions broke down, or were sim\u00adply cir\u00adcum\u00advent\u00aded by par\u00adtic\u00adu\u00adlar\u00adly clever crim\u00adi\u00adnals. My knowl\u00adedge of some par\u00adtic\u00adu\u00adlar hunt\u00ading cul\u00adtures sug\u00adgests to me that none were absolute\u00adly immune to the machi\u00adna\u00adtions of lit\u00adtle Hitlers and lit\u00adtle Lenins, and that they occa\u00adsion\u00adal\u00adly broke down into small tyran\u00adni\u00adcal \u201cstates\u201d serv\u00ading the inter\u00adests of a few. But I sus\u00adpect that those pro\u00adto-demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic insti\u00adtu\u00adtions worked rea\u00adson\u00adably well, much of the time, until the trans\u00adfor\u00adma\u00adtion of human soci\u00adeties in the Bronze Age opened up oppor\u00adtu\u00adni\u00adties for new crim\u00adi\u00adnal strategies.<\/span><\/p>\n

When the egal\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan ethos of mod\u00adern hunter-gath\u00ader\u00aders came to their atten\u00adtion, paleo-anthro\u00adpol\u00ado\u00adgists began to won\u00adder how it was that human beings came to behave this way, when their pri\u00admate ances\u00adtors appar\u00adent\u00adly did not. Pri\u00admate soci\u00adeties exhib\u00adit many human char\u00adac\u00adter\u00adis\u00adtics, but they all appear to be firm\u00adly in the grip of dom\u00adi\u00adnance hier\u00adar\u00adchies, inter\u00adrupt\u00aded by rebel\u00adlions and coup\u2011d\u2019etats<\/em> that mere\u00adly bring dif\u00adfer\u00adent dom\u00adi\u00adnant alphas into power.[2] If human soci\u00adeties with an egal\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan ethos were the lin\u00adeal descen\u00addants of pri\u00admate soci\u00adeties with dom\u00adi\u00adnant hier\u00adar\u00adchies, how did this dra\u00admat\u00adic change come about?<\/span><\/p>\n

A num\u00adber of ethol\u00ado\u00adgists, anthro\u00adpol\u00ado\u00adgists, and evo\u00adlu\u00adtion\u00adary biol\u00ado\u00adgists are lean\u00ading toward the the\u00ado\u00adry that Lan\u00adguage is the key. Lan\u00adguage, as we have seen, appears to be inti\u00admate\u00adly con\u00adnect\u00aded with the suite of behav\u00adiours that par\u00adtic\u00adu\u00adlar\u00adly dis\u00adtin\u00adguish human com\u00admu\u00adni\u00adties from oth\u00ader pri\u00admates. It would not be sur\u00adpris\u00ading if it was also instru\u00admen\u00adtal in devel\u00adop\u00ading the fea\u00adture of social orga\u00adni\u00adza\u00adtion that dis\u00adtin\u00adguish\u00ades humans from oth\u00ader pri\u00admates. The argu\u00adment goes as follows.<\/span><\/p>\n

Pri\u00admate com\u00admu\u00adni\u00adties are always vul\u00adner\u00ada\u00adble to being con\u00adtrolled by dom\u00adi\u00adnant indi\u00advid\u00adu\u00adals, who climb their way to pow\u00ader by con\u00adspir\u00ading togeth\u00ader with oth\u00ader indi\u00advid\u00adu\u00adals to over\u00adthrow the exist\u00ading tyrant, then either assume the top posi\u00adtion and pay off their co-con\u00adspir\u00ada\u00adtors with priv\u00adi\u00adleges, or enter a strug\u00adgle with them for the top posi\u00adtion. When in pow\u00ader, they may con\u00adsol\u00adi\u00addate it by tak\u00ading on the role of \u201cpeace-mak\u00ader\u201d, dif\u00adfus\u00ading quar\u00adrels among under\u00adlings, and dis\u00adci\u00adplin\u00ading whomev\u00ader they choose, They back up their author\u00adi\u00adty either with their own bru\u00adtal vio\u00adlence, or proxy vio\u00adlence by hench\u00admen. They take full advan\u00adtage of their posi\u00adtion to monop\u00ado\u00adlize mat\u00ading oppor\u00adtu\u00adni\u00adties, or assign them to reward loy\u00adal fol\u00adlow\u00aders. The major\u00adi\u00adty of chim\u00adpanzees do not ben\u00ade\u00adfit from this arrange\u00adment in any dis\u00adcernible way, except that the rel\u00ada\u00adtive calm when a tyrant is secure in his throne is bet\u00adter than the dan\u00adger\u00adous insta\u00adbil\u00adi\u00adty when he is acquir\u00ading or los\u00ading it. The tyrant does not pro\u00adduce any\u00adthing. He is a posi\u00adtion to expro\u00adpri\u00adate what he wants from oth\u00aders, and his genet\u00adic her\u00aditage is favoured by enhanced breed\u00ading opportunities.<\/span><\/p>\n

Pri\u00admate com\u00admu\u00adni\u00adties can and do revolt against this kind of author\u00adi\u00adty, but revolts are like\u00adly to be led by ambi\u00adtious indi\u00advid\u00adu\u00adals who will sim\u00adply replace the cur\u00adrent tyran\u00adny with their own. This is a process very famil\u00adiar to those of us humans who study his\u00adto\u00adry. More\u00adover, rebel\u00adlions must be both spon\u00adta\u00adneous and well-timed, or they are eas\u00adi\u00adly foiled.<\/span><\/p>\n

Lan\u00adguage may have become a tool that allowed non-dom\u00adi\u00adnant hominids to col\u00adlab\u00ado\u00adrate much more affec\u00adtive\u00adly against vio\u00adlent alpha-male tyrants. The abil\u00adi\u00adty to talk about sit\u00adu\u00ada\u00adtions and plan actions meant that non-dom\u00adi\u00adnant indi\u00advid\u00adu\u00adals could set up con\u00adfronta\u00adtions, ambush\u00ades, and revolts at times when the dom\u00adi\u00adnant \u201cking\u201d did not expect it. In addi\u00adtion, hand-held weapons, appear\u00ading rough\u00adly at the same time as lan\u00adguage, may have altered the bal\u00adance of pow\u00ader. The effec\u00adtive\u00adness of such weapons was more deter\u00admined by plan\u00adning and clev\u00ader\u00adness than by brute strength. Dom\u00adi\u00adnant chim\u00adpanzees are usu\u00adal\u00adly phys\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly big\u00adger and stronger than the sub\u00adjects they bul\u00adly. Their dom\u00adi\u00adnance is enforced by phys\u00adi\u00adcal beat\u00adings, or the threat of them. Even a group attack on a big dom\u00adi\u00adnant chimp, rely\u00ading on fangs and pow\u00ader\u00adful hands and feet, is a pret\u00adty dan\u00adger\u00adous gam\u00adble. But no mat\u00adter how much big\u00adger or stronger a mod\u00adern human is, he is com\u00adplete\u00adly vul\u00adner\u00ada\u00adble to being dis\u00adpatched by alliance of men wield\u00ading spears and clubs in a planned, co-ordi\u00adnat\u00aded attack. Even a child can dis\u00adpatch a full-grown adult with a well-thrown rock. There is con\u00adsid\u00ader\u00adable archae\u00ado\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal evi\u00addence that rock-throw\u00ading was a dis\u00adtinc\u00adtive skill for which hominids were phys\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly adapt\u00aded, and for which oth\u00ader pri\u00admates are not.<\/span><\/p>\n

From the stand\u00adpoint of what evo\u00adlu\u00adtion\u00adary biol\u00ado\u00adgists call \u201cselec\u00adtion pres\u00adsure\u201d, cer\u00adtain spe\u00adcif\u00adic recon\u00adfig\u00adu\u00adra\u00adtions would have come about in response to the pres\u00adence of spo\u00adken lan\u00adguage and hand-held weapons. The most vio\u00adlent bul\u00adlies that dom\u00adi\u00adnat\u00aded ear\u00adly hominids would have been weed\u00aded out of the gene pool. The more extreme their behav\u00adiour, the less like\u00adly it would be for them to live long enough to pass on their genes. Females would become less like\u00adly to sub\u00admit to rape and beat\u00adings from alpha-males. Hominids would begin to exhib\u00adit less dra\u00admat\u00adic dif\u00adfer\u00adences in size between dom\u00adi\u00adnant and sub-dom\u00adi\u00adnant indi\u00advid\u00adu\u00adals, and between males and females. Among non-human pri\u00admates, the size dif\u00adfer\u00adence between males and females is dra\u00admat\u00adic. Among humans, it is fair\u00adly triv\u00adial. Hun\u00addreds of gen\u00ader\u00ada\u00adtions of \u201cambush\u00ades\u201d, enabled by the detailed infor\u00adma\u00adtion exchanges, plan\u00adning, and pro\u00adtract\u00aded alliances that lan\u00adguage made easy, would effec\u00adtive\u00adly put an end to the tyran\u00adni\u00adcal rule of the large, vio\u00adlent, alpha male, set\u00adting the stage for the egal\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan ethos.<\/span><\/p>\n

The gen\u00ader\u00adal abil\u00adi\u00adty to be vio\u00adlent would not be bred out, because any group that did so would eas\u00adi\u00adly fall pray to more vig\u00ador\u00adous trib\u00adal rivals, or fail to main\u00adtain hunt\u00ading skills. But lan\u00adguage would per\u00admit the devel\u00adop\u00adment of social con\u00adtrols, which would act as pro\u00adphy\u00adlac\u00adtic against in-group bul\u00adly\u00ading, while main\u00adtain\u00ading the poten\u00adtial for vio\u00adlent action. The poten\u00adtial for vio\u00adlence is, in fact, nec\u00ades\u00adsary for the ulti\u00admate enforce\u00adment of the egal\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan ethos. It con\u00adsti\u00adtutes the fun\u00adda\u00admen\u00adtal cir\u00adcu\u00adlar puz\u00adzle that ethi\u00adcists have long iden\u00adti\u00adfied: we need laws to restrain the arbi\u00adtrary use of force, and force to make law mean what it says, and who shall guard the guardians? We have com\u00admit\u00adted our\u00adselves to a pro\u00adtract\u00aded exper\u00adi\u00adment to solve this puz\u00adzle, ever since we first came on the scene as a species.<\/span><\/p>\n

This recon\u00adstruc\u00adtion of events in human evo\u00adlu\u00adtion has come to be wide\u00adly accept\u00aded among paleo-anthro\u00adpol\u00ado\u00adgists, most\u00adly because of its plau\u00adsi\u00adbil\u00adi\u00adty, and because nobody has come up with any sub\u00adstan\u00adtial counter-argu\u00adments. It is not nec\u00ades\u00adsar\u00adi\u00adly or indis\u00adputably what hap\u00adpened, and it is dif\u00adfi\u00adcult to guess how it might be con\u00adfirmed or dis\u00adproved. It does cre\u00adate, for the his\u00adto\u00adri\u00adan of democ\u00adra\u00adcy, a viable the\u00ado\u00adret\u00adi\u00adcal basis for the ori\u00adgin of pro\u00adto-demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic insti\u00adtu\u00adtions, and evi\u00addence for the asser\u00adtion that democ\u00adra\u00adcy is a uni\u00adver\u00adsal human heritage.<\/span><\/p>\n

The nar\u00adra\u00adtive implied by this spec\u00adu\u00adla\u00adtion runs like this: All social ani\u00admals have some\u00adthing describ\u00adable as \u201cpol\u00adi\u00adtics\u201d. The pol\u00adi\u00adtics of our remote pri\u00admate ances\u00adtors resem\u00adbled the most destruc\u00adtive of our own mod\u00adern pol\u00adi\u00adtics: An ear\u00adly hominid Mao Zedong or Adolph Hitler, by the sim\u00adple expe\u00addi\u00adent of fly\u00ading into rages, bit\u00ading, kick\u00ading, rap\u00ading, and weigh\u00ading twen\u00adty kilos more than his rivals, was rou\u00adtine\u00adly able to rule over any pri\u00admate soci\u00adety, to the detri\u00adment of its var\u00adi\u00adous mem\u00adbers, but to his own repro\u00adduc\u00adtive suc\u00adcess. Along comes lan\u00adguage, great stuff for plan\u00adning and con\u00adspir\u00ading rebel\u00adlion, and weapons, which neu\u00adtral\u00adize the advan\u00adtage of fangs and mus\u00adcles. Mao Ape is top\u00adpled from his throne, but he does not go away entire\u00adly. He is con\u00adstant\u00adly being reborn among us. We our\u00adselves always main\u00adtain the poten\u00adtial for vio\u00adlence and, to vary\u00ading degrees, the temp\u00adta\u00adtion to rule over others.<\/span><\/p>\n

For most of us, dom\u00adi\u00adnance is a mut\u00aded desire. Nor\u00admal human beings want to be admired and respect\u00aded, and they want autonomous con\u00adtrol over their own lives, but they don\u2019t crave to have oth\u00aders crawl\u00ading at their feet, nor do they get a big thrill from see\u00ading oth\u00aders suf\u00adfer\u00ading or quak\u00ading in ter\u00adror. Nev\u00ader\u00adthe\u00adless, the genet\u00adic pack\u00adage that keeps us alive also allows for the recur\u00adrent reap\u00adpear\u00adance of a psy\u00adcho\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal type sim\u00adi\u00adlar to Mao Ape, who def\u00adi\u00adnite\u00adly does crave these things. In any group of humans, you will find a few, scat\u00adtered among the vari\u00ada\u00adtions in human char\u00adac\u00adter. Their influ\u00adence can only be coun\u00adter\u00adact\u00aded by the cul\u00adtur\u00adal pack\u00adage: social con\u00adtrols that nip arro\u00adgance in the bud, and demand strong and weak, big and small, rich and poor be respect\u00aded alike.<\/span><\/p>\n

Mao Ape, when\u00adev\u00ader he reap\u00adpears, is not con\u00adsis\u00adtent\u00adly con\u00adtained by these social con\u00adtrols. His restraint requires con\u00adstant effort and vig\u00adi\u00adlance on the part of nor\u00admal humans, whose defen\u00adsive strate\u00adgies have to be com\u00adplex and in tune. But he, too, can play the cul\u00adture game. He too, is equipped with lan\u00adguage and sym\u00adbols, can col\u00adlab\u00ado\u00adrate with fel\u00adlow Mao-Apes, and devise counter-strate\u00adgies to over\u00adcome social controls.<\/span><\/p>\n

Thus came into being a per\u00adpet\u00adu\u00adal arms race between us and Mao Ape, between demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic and aris\u00adto\u00adcrat\u00adic ideas.<\/span><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

In the begin\u00adning years of this blog, I pub\u00adlished a series of arti\u00adcles called \u201cMed\u00adi\u00adta\u00adtions on Democ\u00adracy and Dic\u00adta\u00adtor\u00adship\u201d which are still reg\u00adu\u00adlarly read today, and have had some influ\u00adence. They still elic\u00adit inquiries from remote cor\u00adners of the globe. \u2026<\/p>\n

Read more \u00bb<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"wp_typography_post_enhancements_disabled":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[1,1494,409],"tags":[968,970,971,967,969],"class_list":["post-5423","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-a-blog","category-ai-blog-2018","category-meditations-series","tag-democracy","tag-egalitarian","tag-hunter-gatherers","tag-meditations-on-democracy","tag-primate-behavior"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/5423","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=5423"}],"version-history":[{"count":6,"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/5423\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":8136,"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/5423\/revisions\/8136"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=5423"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcategories&post=5423"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Ftags&post=5423"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}