{"id":5452,"date":"2018-02-10T02:22:08","date_gmt":"2018-02-10T07:22:08","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/?p=5452"},"modified":"2018-12-25T18:29:32","modified_gmt":"2018-12-25T23:29:32","slug":"first-meditation-on-democracy-written-wednesday-july-25-2007-republished-2","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/?p=5452","title":{"rendered":"First Meditation on Democracy [written Wednesday, July 25, 2007] REPUBLISHED<\/span>"},"content":{"rendered":"

\"https<\/a>In the begin\u00adning years of this blog, I pub\u00adlished a series of arti\u00adcles called \u201cMed\u00adi\u00adta\u00adtions on Democ\u00adracy and Dic\u00adta\u00adtor\u00adship\u201d which are still reg\u00adu\u00adlarly read today, and have had some influ\u00adence. They still elic\u00adit inquiries from remote cor\u00adners of the globe. They are now buried in the back pages of the blog, so I\u2019m mov\u00ading them up the chrono\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal counter so they can have anoth\u00ader round of vis\u00adi\u00adbil\u00adity, espe\u00adcially (I hope) with younger read\u00aders. I am re-post\u00ading them in their orig\u00adi\u00adnal sequence over part of 2018. Some ref\u00ader\u00adences in these \u201cmed\u00adi\u00adta\u00adtions\u201d will date them to 2007\u20132008, when they were writ\u00adten. But I will leave them un-retouched, though I may occa\u00adsion\u00adally append some ret\u00adro\u00adspec\u00adtive notes. Most\u00adly, they deal with abstract issues that do not need updating.<\/span><\/p>\n

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<\/p>\n

\"18-02-10<\/a>

Har\u00admod\u00adius and Aris\u00adto\u00adgeiton, the gay cou\u00adple whom the Athe\u00adni\u00adans regard\u00aded as the founders of their democracy<\/p><\/div>\n

All philoso\u00adphies stand on choic\u00ades that can\u00adnot be jus\u00adti\u00adfied by proof. Any ama\u00adteur Socrates can demon\u00adstrate that I can\u2019t prove that two and two are four, or that free\u00addom is desir\u00adable, or even that I exist. Ulti\u00admate\u00adly, ideas, no mat\u00adter how pas\u00adsion\u00adate\u00adly held, rest on assump\u00adtions that can\u00adnot be known with absolute cer\u00adtain\u00adty. It does not fol\u00adlow from this that we should avoid act\u00ading on sig\u00adnif\u00adi\u00adcant assump\u00adtions, or that we should aban\u00addon the analy\u00adsis of ideas. If I\u2019m stand\u00ading in the mid\u00addle of the street, and see a twelve-ton truck hurtling in my direc\u00adtion, I don\u2019t stand there, par\u00ada\u00adlyzed by epis\u00adte\u00admo\u00adlog\u00adi\u00adcal uncer\u00adtain\u00adty. I jump out of its way. Lat\u00ader, seat\u00aded on a com\u00adfort\u00adable couch, with a cold beer in my hand, I might indulge in the lux\u00adu\u00adry of reflect\u00ading that the truck may have been an illu\u00adsion, or that I can\u00adnot prove with cer\u00adtain\u00adty that being hit by a truck is worse than not being hit by a truck. All of us must choose our basic assump\u00adtions, either in a con\u00adscious process, guid\u00aded by rea\u00adson, or unconsciously.<\/p>\n

This is a med\u00adi\u00adta\u00adtion on democ\u00adra\u00adcy<\/em>, and democ\u00adra\u00adcy only becomes a coher\u00adent idea when it rests on the assump\u00adtion that human beings have rights. This, in turn, rests on the assump\u00adtion that there is a moral dimen\u00adsion to the uni\u00adverse. Out\u00adside of these assump\u00adtions, polit\u00adi\u00adcal thought becomes arbi\u00adtrary. If indi\u00advid\u00adual human beings have no rights, then what\u00adev\u00ader hap\u00adpens is self-suf\u00adfi\u00adcient\u00adly jus\u00adti\u00adfied, and any state of affairs that human beings find them\u00adselves in is as desir\u00adable as any oth\u00ader. Effec\u00adtive\u00adly, if there is no moral dimen\u00adsion to the uni\u00adverse, then it is a mat\u00adter of indif\u00adfer\u00adence what hap\u00adpens. Events just come to pass \u2015 say, the Holo\u00adcaust, or the Slave Trade, or Abu Graib \u2015 and there is no point in dis\u00adcussing them. It is point\u00adless to seek jus\u00adtice or defy injus\u00adtice, because the very idea of jus\u00adtice depends on the assump\u00adtion of a moral\u00adi\u00adty that rests upon some\u00adthing more sub\u00adstan\u00adtial than cus\u00adtom or whim. In the absence of moral choice, peo\u00adple seek some sense of order in human affairs through some amoral orga\u00adniz\u00ading prin\u00adci\u00adple. Loy\u00adal\u00adty to a group, obe\u00addi\u00adence to author\u00adi\u00adty, or the famil\u00adiar\u00adi\u00adty of rit\u00adu\u00adal become sub\u00adsti\u00adtutes for eth\u00adi\u00adcal conscience.<\/p>\n

The unavoid\u00adable choice that a demo\u00adc\u00adrat makes is to assume that the uni\u00adverse has a moral aspect, just as it has a math\u00ade\u00admat\u00adi\u00adcal aspect, and an aspect of mat\u00adter and ener\u00adgy \u2015 no mat\u00adter how hard to grasp these aspects might be. In the Democ\u00adra\u00adt\u2019s view, the demands of eth\u00adi\u00adcal con\u00adscience overule loy\u00adal\u00adty to groups, obe\u00addi\u00adence to author\u00adi\u00adty, or ritual.<\/p>\n

Moral\u00adi\u00adty comes into play where there is con\u00adscious\u00adness. A human brain may be com\u00adposed of cells, and those cells of chem\u00adi\u00adcals, and those chem\u00adi\u00adcals be reducible to atoms, but those sim\u00adpli\u00adfi\u00adca\u00adtions do not rob it of its inher\u00adent com\u00adplex\u00adi\u00adty. It is fun\u00adda\u00admen\u00adtal\u00adly dif\u00adfer\u00adent, as a pat\u00adtern, from a lump of coal, which can also be reduced to atoms. To get a hint of this kind of com\u00adplex\u00adi\u00adty, imag\u00adine an old-fash\u00adioned can of movie film con\u00adtain\u00ading the clas\u00adsic dra\u00adma The Mal\u00adtese Fal\u00adcon<\/em>. There is no mate\u00adr\u00adi\u00adal object inside that film can oth\u00ader than a long strip of cel\u00adlu\u00adloid, on which are print\u00aded blobs of opaque emul\u00adsion com\u00adprised of sil\u00adver halide grains sus\u00adpend\u00aded in a gelatin col\u00adloid. What dis\u00adtin\u00adguish\u00ades these par\u00adtic\u00adu\u00adlar blobs is that they cre\u00adate a pat\u00adtern of selec\u00adtive trans\u00adparen\u00adcy and opac\u00adi\u00adty, and that when light is pro\u00adject\u00aded through them, they cre\u00adate an image on a screen. That pat\u00adtern is not an arbi\u00adtrary jum\u00adble of light and dark. It pre\u00adserves the rec\u00adog\u00adniz\u00adable images of human beings named Humphrey Bog\u00ada\u00adrt, Mary Astor, Syd\u00adney Green\u00adstreet, and Peter Lorre. These human beings actu\u00adal\u00adly lived and breathed and thought. Their faces, voic\u00ades, and many sub\u00adtleties of their per\u00adson\u00adal\u00adi\u00adties are pre\u00adserved by the cel\u00adlu\u00adloid. These \u201cmere\u201d blobs of light and dark amount to some\u00adthing with mean\u00ading. Lev\u00adels upon lev\u00adels of mean\u00ading can be dis\u00adcov\u00adered in this pat\u00adtern, includ\u00ading irony, sus\u00adpense, com\u00ade\u00addy, love, betray\u00adal \u2014 all the intri\u00adcate sub\u00adtleties of an artis\u00adtic cre\u00adation. If there was only one sur\u00adviv\u00ading print of The Mal\u00adtese Fal\u00adcon, I would run into a burn\u00ading build\u00ading to save it. I would not run into a build\u00ading to save a ran\u00addom expo\u00adsure of film embody\u00ading no sig\u00adnif\u00adi\u00adcant pattern.<\/p>\n

One does not have to pro\u00adpose some super\u00adnat\u00adur\u00adal agency to assign sig\u00adnif\u00adi\u00adcance to a human mind, or to imag\u00adine a \u201cghost in the machine\u201d, or some\u00adthing as unde\u00adfin\u00adable as a \u201csoul\u201d. There may very well be such super\u00adnat\u00adur\u00adal events and agen\u00adcies. I have no way of know\u00ading whether they exist or not. But their pres\u00adence is not nec\u00ades\u00adsary for me to make a moral analy\u00adsis, or to make moral choices.<\/p>\n

Moral rela\u00adtion\u00adships come into being where there is con\u00adscious\u00adness. Any two con\u00adscious beings com\u00ading into con\u00adtact with each oth\u00ader can be sub\u00adject to a moral analy\u00adsis. I have no moral rela\u00adtion\u00adship with a rock. Noth\u00ading I can do to a rock, or that a rock can do to me, requires moral judg\u00adment. But I have a moral rela\u00adtion\u00adship to any\u00adthing that is self-aware and can think. This is why I assume that I must exer\u00adcise moral judg\u00adment in my rela\u00adtion\u00adship with Stampy, my pet rab\u00adbit. Stampy has an evi\u00addent degree of mind and self-aware\u00adness, which means in polit\u00adi\u00adcal terms that he has some \u201crights\u201d. These rights emerge direct\u00adly from his exis\u00adtence as a con\u00adscious being, and because of these rights, I can\u00adnot tor\u00adture him for my own amuse\u00adment, or let him starve to death in agony because I would rather spend his food mon\u00adey on dvds.<\/p>\n

It\u2019s con\u00adscious\u00adness, not life, that is the sig\u00adnif\u00adi\u00adcant fac\u00adtor here. A bac\u00adteri\u00adum and a car\u00adrot are liv\u00ading beings, but they are not con\u00adscious beings. I do not have to wor\u00adry about vio\u00adlat\u00ading the rights of a car\u00adrot. My respect for life impels me to act in defense of endan\u00adgered species of plants, or to oppose the clear-cut\u00adting of ancient forests, but it does not impel me to enter a moral dis\u00adcourse with a par\u00adtic\u00adu\u00adlar tree. How\u00adev\u00ader, my rela\u00adtion\u00adships with con\u00adscious beings are indi\u00advid\u00adual rela\u00adtion\u00adships with a moral dimen\u00adsion. Wher\u00adev\u00ader there is any degree of mind, I must exer\u00adcise some degree of moral judg\u00adment. The pres\u00adence of mind in human beings is self-evi\u00addent to me, and I can\u00adnot evade the con\u00adclu\u00adsion that human beings have rights, which I am bound to respect. \u201cRights\u201d, in this sense, emerge from the nature of con\u00adscious beings, from the real\u00adi\u00adty of the world. That is why it is appro\u00adpri\u00adate to refer to them as \u201cnat\u00adur\u00adal\u201d rights. They are not arbi\u00adtrary cus\u00adtoms. They are not fab\u00adri\u00adca\u00adtions of society.<\/p>\n

The prac\u00adtic\u00ading demo\u00adc\u00adrat assumes that the rights of humans emerge from their sta\u00adtus as high\u00adly con\u00adscious beings, and that all human beings share the same basic type of con\u00adscious\u00adness. Con\u00adscious\u00adness should not be con\u00adfused with intel\u00adli\u00adgence. Peo\u00adple may vary, indi\u00advid\u00adu\u00adal\u00adly, in men\u00adtal skills, but these skills are triv\u00adial vari\u00ada\u00adtions with\u00adin the frame\u00adwork of con\u00adscious\u00adness. All of us, clever and not-so-clever, are self-aware beings, with per\u00adson\u00adal\u00adi\u00adties. Only those who have suf\u00adfered extreme forms of brain dam\u00adage, wip\u00ading out per\u00adson\u00adal\u00adi\u00adty entire\u00adly, could be con\u00adsid\u00adered to have a sub\u00adstan\u00adtial\u00adly dif\u00adfer\u00adent lev\u00adel of con\u00adscious\u00adness. It fol\u00adlows from the recog\u00adni\u00adtion of this uni\u00adfor\u00admi\u00adty, that all human beings have rights, and that these rights are iden\u00adti\u00adcal for all human beings. In fact, a con\u00adsis\u00adtent\u00adly prac\u00adtic\u00ading Demo\u00adc\u00adrat would assume that these rights would hold true for mem\u00adbers of an alien civ\u00adi\u00adliza\u00adtion, if we should come into con\u00adtact with them.<\/p>\n

Rights, emerg\u00ading from indi\u00advid\u00adual con\u00adscious\u00adness, and pre\u00adsumed to be iden\u00adti\u00adcal for all indi\u00advid\u00adual human beings, can be eval\u00adu\u00adat\u00aded only in rela\u00adtion to indi\u00advid\u00adual human beings. There is no such thing as a \u201ccol\u00adlec\u00adtive right\u201d that some\u00adhow super\u00adsedes, or can\u00adcels out the rights of any indi\u00advid\u00adual. A group of human beings does not have a con\u00adscious\u00adness. It is mere\u00adly a sta\u00adtis\u00adti\u00adcal abstrac\u00adtion. Nations do not have rights. Eth\u00adnic\u00adi\u00adties do not have rights. Cor\u00adpo\u00adra\u00adtions do not have rights. Church\u00ades do not have rights. Gen\u00adders do not have rights. Asso\u00adci\u00ada\u00adtions of peo\u00adple with sur\u00adnames begin\u00adning with the let\u00adter L do not have rights. Only indi\u00advid\u00adual<\/em> human beings have rights, and those rights are absolute\u00adly iden\u00adti\u00adcal for all self-aware human beings, any\u00adwhere, at any time, with\u00adout excep\u00adtion. Rights are not affect\u00aded by, or depen\u00addent upon, cul\u00adture, cus\u00adtom, or tra\u00addi\u00adtion. Rights do not vary geo\u00adgraph\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly or tem\u00adpo\u00adral\u00adly. They can\u00adnot be trad\u00aded, rescind\u00aded, can\u00adceled out, renounced, dis\u00adposed of, or altered. They are, in the charm\u00ading vocab\u00adu\u00adlary of the 18th Cen\u00adtu\u00adry, \u201cinalien\u00adable.\u201d<\/p>\n

These three con\u00adcepts \u2014 a moral aspect to human rela\u00adtion\u00adships; inalien\u00adable human rights; the moral equal\u00adi\u00adty of all human beings \u2014 are the fun\u00adda\u00admen\u00adtal premis\u00ades of demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic thought. Attempts to estab\u00adlish demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic prac\u00adtice on a the\u00ado\u00adret\u00adi\u00adcal foun\u00adda\u00adtion with\u00adout rights or moral\u00adi\u00adty are too intel\u00adlec\u00adtu\u00adal\u00adly slip\u00adshod to stand up to scrutiny.<\/p>\n

In the ear\u00adly 19th cen\u00adtu\u00adry, such an attempt was made, by a clus\u00adter of philoso\u00adphers called Util\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adans. Their influ\u00adence was pre\u00addom\u00adi\u00adnant\u00adly in the Eng\u00adlish-speak\u00ading part of the world, but echoes of their thoughts often occur else\u00adwhere. To this day, Util\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan argu\u00adments can be heard in polit\u00adi\u00adcal sci\u00adence class\u00adrooms, and have been absorbed into the vision of \u201cLib\u00ader\u00adal Democ\u00adra\u00adcy\u201d por\u00adtrayed in many text\u00adbooks. The Util\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan phrase that is most often repeat\u00aded is that the pur\u00adpose of gov\u00adern\u00adment is to secure \u201cthe great\u00adest good for the great\u00adest num\u00adber\u201d. This is par\u00adtic\u00adu\u00adlar\u00adly con\u00adfus\u00ading, because this phrase is usu\u00adal\u00adly accom\u00adpa\u00adnied by the asser\u00adtion that there is no such thing as an objec\u00adtive moral choice, but only the pos\u00adsi\u00adbil\u00adi\u00adty of a \u201cutil\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan cal\u00adcu\u00adla\u00adtion\u201d. Since the \u201cgood\u201d implic\u00adit in the cal\u00adcu\u00adla\u00adtion of the \u201cgreat\u00adest good\u201d can\u00adnot be allowed to refer to any\u00adthing but the cal\u00adcu\u00adla\u00adtion itself, then it\u2019s rather hard to deter\u00admine exact\u00adly what is being cal\u00adcu\u00adlat\u00aded. Any action can, with a lit\u00adtle cre\u00adativ\u00adi\u00adty, be made to fit the Util\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan for\u00admu\u00adla. Could not 51% of a soci\u00adety choose to exter\u00admi\u00adnate the oth\u00ader 49%, serv\u00ading the \u201cgreat\u00adest good of the great\u00adest num\u00adber\u201d, then 51% of the remain\u00adder exter\u00admi\u00adnate anoth\u00ader 49%, fol\u00adlow\u00ading the same log\u00adic, con\u00adtin\u00adu\u00ading until there remained three peo\u00adple, and two of them solemn\u00adly vot\u00aded for the exe\u00adcu\u00adtion of the third? In fact, many of the out\u00adrages of his\u00adto\u00adry have pre\u00adsent\u00aded them\u00adselves as some form of Util\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan cal\u00adcu\u00adlus. The Holo\u00adcaust, after all, sac\u00adri\u00adficed a few mil\u00adlion Jews, Gyp\u00adsies and homo\u00adsex\u00adu\u00adals on the alter of the \u201cgreater good\u201d of the greater number.<\/p>\n

We find the same type of sta\u00adtis\u00adti\u00adcal cal\u00adcu\u00adla\u00adtion, with\u00adout ref\u00ader\u00adence to human rights, where \u201cdemoc\u00adra\u00adcy\u201d is crude\u00adly con\u00adceived of as an ide\u00adol\u00ado\u00adgy jus\u00adti\u00adfy\u00ading the absolute rule of any major\u00adi\u00adty. There are many nations where polit\u00adi\u00adcal par\u00adties are noth\u00ading more than fan\u00adcy names for par\u00adtic\u00adu\u00adlar eth\u00adnic groups, and the elec\u00adtoral vic\u00adto\u00adry of the largest group is fol\u00adlowed by a ruth\u00adless per\u00adse\u00adcu\u00adtion of the smaller.<\/p>\n

In prac\u00adtice, Util\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan thought was usu\u00adal\u00adly inter\u00adpret\u00aded to mean what\u00adev\u00ader pol\u00adi\u00adcy seemed most con\u00adve\u00adnient to a rul\u00ading or man\u00adage\u00adr\u00adi\u00adal class. The ear\u00adly Util\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adans, whose pre-emi\u00adnent spokesman was Jere\u00admy Ben\u00adtham, had lit\u00adtle inter\u00adest in the demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic process. The \u201cgreat\u00adest good\u201d was some\u00adthing that was to be cal\u00adcu\u00adlat\u00aded by a rul\u00ading elite, with as lit\u00adtle inter\u00adfer\u00adence from the \u201cgreat\u00adest num\u00adber\u201d as pos\u00adsi\u00adble. But a lat\u00ader gen\u00ader\u00ada\u00adtion, tak\u00ading its cues from John Stu\u00adart Mill, inher\u00adit\u00aded the philo\u00adsoph\u00adi\u00adcal trap\u00adpings of the ear\u00adly Util\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adans, and mod\u00adi\u00adfied them to the end of pre\u00adserv\u00ading social sta\u00adbil\u00adi\u00adty. The pro\u00adpo\u00adnents of what came to be called \u201cLib\u00ader\u00adal\u00adism\u201d saw demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic insti\u00adtu\u00adtions as a use\u00adful safe\u00adty valve to head off rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion in the low\u00ader class\u00ades. Elect\u00aded par\u00adlia\u00adments and a wide\u00adspread fran\u00adchise would pro\u00advide use\u00adful input to guide a rul\u00ading class, pre\u00advent it from get\u00adting dan\u00adger\u00adous\u00adly out of touch with its sub\u00ador\u00addi\u00adnates, and head off extremes of pol\u00adi\u00adcy by pro\u00admot\u00ading com\u00adpro\u00admise. It would also invig\u00ado\u00adrate a rul\u00ading class with \u201cnew blood\u201d in the form of ambi\u00adtious par\u00advenus. But \u201crights\u201d, as moral imper\u00ada\u00adtives, in the sense pro\u00adposed by some ear\u00adli\u00ader thinkers, were dis\u00admissed as fig\u00adments of the imag\u00adi\u00adna\u00adtion. The inequal\u00adi\u00adty of human beings was tak\u00aden as self-evi\u00addent. There was no ques\u00adtion, in their minds, that a soci\u00adety was a col\u00adlec\u00adtive organ\u00adism, whose sur\u00advival was more impor\u00adtant than the life or lib\u00ader\u00adty of any indi\u00advid\u00adual. Indi\u00advid\u00adual human beings were seen as, in the end, dis\u00adpos\u00adable com\u00adpo\u00adnents. Rulers ruled over the ruled. The idea that peo\u00adple should be rul\u00ading them\u00adselves, as moral equals, was dis\u00admissed as a utopi\u00adan piety, a prim\u00adi\u00adtive stage in his\u00adto\u00adry, or self-evi\u00addent\u00adly impos\u00adsi\u00adble. The idea that inalien\u00adable rights might con\u00adstrain the exer\u00adcise of col\u00adlec\u00adtive pow\u00ader over the indi\u00advid\u00adual was left out of the dis\u00adcus\u00adsion entirely.<\/p>\n

Vari\u00adants and descen\u00addants of this view dom\u00adi\u00adnate the intel\u00adlec\u00adtu\u00adal life of the coun\u00adtries that today hold demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic elec\u00adtions, but they are not, as often claimed, the philo\u00adsoph\u00adi\u00adcal basis of demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic thought. At best, they are con\u00adfused attempts to jam some sort of demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic prac\u00adtice into the tra\u00addi\u00adtion\u00adal frame\u00adwork of soci\u00adeties based on col\u00adlec\u00adtivism, rank, and caste. At worst, they envi\u00adsion demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic insti\u00adtu\u00adtions as an eti\u00adquette, by which an aris\u00adtoc\u00adra\u00adcy pre\u00adserves its pow\u00ader more effec\u00adtive\u00adly with charm than with threats.<\/p>\n

The evo\u00adlu\u00adtion of demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic insti\u00adtu\u00adtions in the Unit\u00aded King\u00addom, with its high\u00adly vis\u00adi\u00adble class divi\u00adsions, was the tem\u00adplate for this idea of democ\u00adra\u00adcy as a tool for defus\u00ading unrest. The atti\u00adtudes which evolved there where wide\u00adly imi\u00adtat\u00aded by rul\u00ading elites in oth\u00ader coun\u00adtries. Those who saw the sur\u00advival of the State as the mea\u00adsure of all things point\u00aded to the suc\u00adcess\u00adful use of demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic insti\u00adtu\u00adtions to ensure that sur\u00advival. They con\u00adclud\u00aded that it was more effec\u00adtive, in the long run, to man\u00adage peo\u00adple with tem\u00adper\u00adance than to open\u00adly bul\u00adly them. But this tem\u00adper\u00adance remains, in the minds of most elite thinkers, an expe\u00addi\u00adent pol\u00adi\u00adcy in the ser\u00advice of the State, not a recog\u00adni\u00adtion of nat\u00adur\u00adal rights. The State is not seen as a struc\u00adture with which to defend the dig\u00adni\u00adty and rights of indi\u00advid\u00adual human beings. Instead, in this \u201clib\u00ader\u00adal\u201d tra\u00addi\u00adtion, human beings are seen as use\u00adful ani\u00admals, which must be prop\u00ader\u00adly man\u00adaged for the preser\u00adva\u00adtion of the State.<\/p>\n

In North Amer\u00adi\u00adca, where class lines were nev\u00ader clear\u00adly drawn, social roles were vague, and the polit\u00adi\u00adcal elite drew its mem\u00adber\u00adship from var\u00adied ori\u00adgins, demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic insti\u00adtu\u00adtions evolved with much less fear of \u201cthe mob\u201d. Instead, democ\u00adra\u00adcy was seen there as a process for work\u00ading out nec\u00ades\u00adsary com\u00adpro\u00admis\u00ades between con\u00adfed\u00ader\u00adat\u00aded regions, cul\u00adtur\u00adal groups, and clus\u00adters of eco\u00adnom\u00adic inter\u00adests. Some pub\u00adlic dis\u00adcus\u00adsions hinged on the notion that the State exists for the pur\u00adpose of pro\u00adtect\u00ading the rights of peo\u00adple, but more of them relied on the idea that peo\u00adple exist to serve the State. The incon\u00adsis\u00adten\u00adcy of these clash\u00ading premis\u00ades is rarely point\u00aded out. Pub\u00adlic debates jump from one view\u00adpoint to the oth\u00ader, even\u00adtu\u00adal\u00adly resolv\u00ading them\u00adselves ran\u00addom\u00adly. The ten\u00adden\u00adcy is for the sub\u00adtler idea of the pri\u00adma\u00adcy of the indi\u00advid\u00adual to lose out to the amoral con\u00adcept of the pri\u00adma\u00adcy of the State. Peo\u00adple in Cana\u00adda and the Unit\u00aded States still have great dif\u00adfi\u00adcul\u00adty visu\u00adal\u00adiz\u00ading democ\u00adra\u00adcy as a process of peo\u00adple gov\u00adern\u00ading them\u00adselves, and still see their elect\u00aded rep\u00adre\u00adsen\u00adta\u00adtives as being their boss\u00ades \u2014 not a hered\u00adi\u00adtary or class-based rul\u00ading elite, to be sure, but still a bunch of peo\u00adple who out\u00adrank them, and make deci\u00adsions for them. Nev\u00ader\u00adthe\u00adless, a vague idea of pre\u00adserv\u00ading per\u00adson\u00adal lib\u00ader\u00adty floats around in the back\u00adground. It\u2019s not expressed in any rig\u00ador\u00adous the\u00ado\u00adry, but mere\u00adly felt as an emo\u00adtion\u00adal theme. When peo\u00adple feel that gov\u00adern\u00adment is get\u00adting a bit too pushy, that their sense of pro\u00adpri\u00adety is being stressed, they grow uneasy. Politi\u00adcians, ever sen\u00adsi\u00adtive to the pub\u00adlic mood, pull back from exces\u00adsive\u00adly arro\u00adgant poli\u00adcies. To a demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic the\u00ado\u00adrist, these are small vic\u00adto\u00adries in the bat\u00adtle to defend rights, but to the pop\u00adu\u00adla\u00adtion at large, they are mere\u00adly the preser\u00adva\u00adtion of com\u00adfort\u00adable custom.<\/p>\n

Mod\u00adern demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic prac\u00adtice devel\u00adoped from a series of con\u00adflicts and com\u00adpro\u00admis\u00ades between rul\u00ading elites and tru\u00adcu\u00adlent pop\u00adu\u00adla\u00adtions, with only oblique and acci\u00adden\u00adtal influ\u00adences from sys\u00adtem\u00adat\u00adic demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic the\u00ado\u00adry. This is not to say that the accom\u00adplish\u00adments of these democ\u00adra\u00adcies are neg\u00adli\u00adgi\u00adble. Far from it. A per\u00adson does not have to be an expert in med\u00adi\u00adcine and biol\u00ado\u00adgy to be healthy. They need only to have learned a healthy lifestyle. The lives of peo\u00adple in any coun\u00adtry with a his\u00adto\u00adry of rea\u00adson\u00adably demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic insti\u00adtu\u00adtions are pro\u00adfound\u00adly dif\u00adfer\u00adent from those who live at the whim of strut\u00adting gen\u00ader\u00adals and marx\u00adist mob\u00adsters. No sen\u00adsi\u00adble per\u00adson would choose the lat\u00adter envi\u00adron\u00adment for their own chil\u00addren. Because they evolved main\u00adly by lucky breaks and unanalysed impuls\u00ades, rather than by explic\u00adit philo\u00adsoph\u00adi\u00adcal insights, does not mean that their prac\u00adti\u00adcal suc\u00adcess should be ignored. How\u00adev\u00ader, it does make it dif\u00adfi\u00adcult for oth\u00aders to learn from them, and imi\u00adtate their suc\u00adcess. It\u2019s rather like try\u00ading to lean how to ride a bicy\u00adcle by lis\u00adten\u00ading to some\u00adone describe him\u00adself rid\u00ading a bicy\u00adcle. You don\u2019t know exact\u00adly what it is that you are sup\u00adposed to ask, and they can\u2019t explain what they are doing. The rather poor out\u00adcome from attempts to \u201cexport\u201d democ\u00adra\u00adcy from suc\u00adcess\u00adful exam\u00adples to new ground demon\u00adstrates this weak\u00adness. Nei\u00adther the exporter nor the importer have a clear enough under\u00adstand\u00ading of the \u201cprod\u00aduct\u201d for it to be suc\u00adcess\u00adful\u00adly dupli\u00adcat\u00aded. Instead, what ends up being export\u00aded is noth\u00ading more than a clus\u00adter of emp\u00adty forms and arbi\u00adtrary cus\u00adtoms. With\u00adout the under\u00adly\u00ading eth\u00adi\u00adcal com\u00adpo\u00adnent, these forms and cus\u00adtoms are useless.<\/p>\n

Every\u00adone who goes through the sys\u00adtem of edu\u00adca\u00adtion in the coun\u00adtries that are called \u201cdemoc\u00adra\u00adcies\u201d is taught ear\u00adly in the game that \u201cnat\u00adur\u00adal rights\u201d are a quaint con\u00adcept pro\u00adpound\u00aded by wig-wear\u00ading philoso\u00adphers in the 18th cen\u00adtu\u00adry, but irrel\u00ade\u00advant to mod\u00adern polit\u00adi\u00adcal thought. At the same time, the word \u201cright\u201d is used in the broad sense of any desired spe\u00adcif\u00adic objec\u00adtive (\u201ca child should have a right to have his own room\u201d). To add to the con\u00adfu\u00adsion, peo\u00adple in these rel\u00ada\u00adtive\u00adly priv\u00adi\u00adleged coun\u00adtries are reg\u00adu\u00adlar\u00adly exposed to the des\u00adper\u00adate pleas of the oppressed and abused in non-demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic coun\u00adtries. The vic\u00adtims of such oppres\u00adsion have no choice but to appeal to a con\u00adcept of uni\u00adver\u00adsal moral\u00adi\u00adty, since they can hard\u00adly appeal to cus\u00adtom, or to a sense of pro\u00adpri\u00adety and nor\u00admal\u00adcy that they have nev\u00ader expe\u00adri\u00adenced. They can\u2019t look to Util\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan sophistries or moral rel\u00ada\u00adtivism for any hope. The lan\u00adguage of Rights \u2015 rights which are uni\u00adver\u00adsal and inalien\u00adable \u2015 is the only log\u00adi\u00adcal lan\u00adguage for them to employ. From this kind of cri\u00adsis, the word-pair \u201chuman rights\u201d has entered the lan\u00adguage. How\u00adev\u00ader, it has nev\u00ader quite pen\u00ade\u00adtrat\u00aded the con\u00adscience of our intel\u00adlec\u00adtu\u00adal com\u00admu\u00adni\u00adty that \u201chuman rights\u201d means noth\u00ading if it does not mean \u201cnat\u00adur\u00adal rights\u201d. The same pro\u00adfes\u00adsor, jour\u00adnal\u00adist, or social sci\u00aden\u00adtist who pro\u00adclaims an enthu\u00adsi\u00adasm for \u201chuman rights\u201d caus\u00ades, will simul\u00adta\u00adne\u00adous\u00adly sub\u00adscribe to a vague moral rel\u00ada\u00adtivism, mixed with a jum\u00adble of con\u00adtra\u00addic\u00adto\u00adry for\u00admu\u00adlas inher\u00adit\u00aded from the Util\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adans, and assert that rights are an illu\u00adsion. Their sense of jus\u00adtice, formed sub\u00adcon\u00adscious\u00adly from being raised in an envi\u00adron\u00adment of demo\u00adc\u00adra\u00adt\u00adic nor\u00admal\u00adcy and a vague sense of per\u00adson\u00adal lib\u00ader\u00adty, tells them that some\u00adthing is being vio\u00adlat\u00aded. They sense that some con\u00adcept of moral\u00adi\u00adty makes tor\u00adture, con\u00adcen\u00adtra\u00adtion camps, and death squads objec\u00adtive\u00adly wrong. But they have no philo\u00adsoph\u00adi\u00adcal tools to con\u00adnect their sense of jus\u00adtice to their view of the world.<\/p>\n

My aim, in these med\u00adi\u00adta\u00adtions, is to make these tools avail\u00adable, both to observers who live in safe and com\u00adfort\u00adable places, but more impor\u00adtant\u00adly, to those on the fir\u00ading line\u2026 the peo\u00adple who have to strug\u00adgle to be free.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

In the begin\u00adning years of this blog, I pub\u00adlished a series of arti\u00adcles called \u201cMed\u00adi\u00adta\u00adtions on Democ\u00adracy and Dic\u00adta\u00adtor\u00adship\u201d which are still reg\u00adu\u00adlarly read today, and have had some influ\u00adence. They still elic\u00adit inquiries from remote cor\u00adners of the globe. \u2026<\/p>\n

Read more \u00bb<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"wp_typography_post_enhancements_disabled":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[1,1494,409],"tags":[1047,1048,968,1046,967,1049,1052,982,1050,1051],"class_list":["post-5452","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-a-blog","category-ai-blog-2018","category-meditations-series","tag-aristogeiton","tag-athenian-democracy","tag-democracy","tag-harmodius","tag-meditations-on-democracy","tag-morality","tag-natural-rights","tag-phil-paine","tag-rights","tag-utilitarians"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/5452","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=5452"}],"version-history":[{"count":8,"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/5452\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":8141,"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/5452\/revisions\/8141"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=5452"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcategories&post=5452"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/www.philpaine.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Ftags&post=5452"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}